World Commemorative Coins - 2

Mozambique

 

 Panzer tanks

Panzer, German in full Panzerkampfwagen,  series of battle tanks fielded by the German army in the 1930s and ’40s. The six tanks in the series constituted virtually all of Germany’s tank production from 1934 until the end of World War II in 1945. Panzers provided the striking power of Germany’s panzer (armoured) divisions throughout the war.

Panzer /ˈpænzər/ (German pronunciation: [ˈpantsɐ] (  listen)) is a German language word that means either tank (the military vehicle) or armour. It is occasionally used in English and some other languages as a loanword in the contexts of German military. It is commonly used in proper names of military divisions (Panzerdivision, ‘panzer division’, 4th Panzer Army, etc.), in proper names of tanks, such as Panzer IV, etc. The dated German term is Panzerkampfwagen, ‘tank’ or literally ‘armoured combat vehicle’ (the modern synonym is Kampfpanzer, or just Panzer).

The German word Panzer refers to any kind of body armour, as in Plattenpanzer, ‘plate armour’, Kettenpanzer, ‘mail’, or generally gepanzert, ‘armoured’. The word also refers to an animal's protective shell or thick hide, as in Schildkrötenpanzer, ‘turtle shell'. It derives through the French pancier, ‘breastplate’, from Latin pantex, ‘belly, paunch’, and is possibly related to panus, ‘swelling’. 

In the period following World War I, the German army had been prohibited by the Treaty of Versailles from using tanks. After Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, however, the army began to rebuild its tank forces, secretly at first and then openly from 1938 on. This late reentry into tank manufacturing actually conferred a distinct advantage on the German army, which entered World War II without being hampered by masses of obsolescent tanks, as was the case with France, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union. The German army began issuing specifications for its first tank, the Pz. I, in late 1933, and specifications for models II through IV were issued in the following three years.

   

Nepal

50th Anniversary of United Nations 

 

Nepal’s contribution to the United Nations peacekeeping began in June 1958. In 2008, Nepal observed the 50th anniversary of Nepal’s participation in the UN peacekeeping operations. So far, Nepal has contributed more than 100,000 troops and police peacekeepers for the maintenance of international peace and security. As of November 2012, Nepal is participating in 11 different UN peacekeeping operations with 4492 peacekeepers.

Nepal is currently 7th largest troop and police contributor to the United Nations peacekeeping operations (as of November 2012). Nepal has conveyed its willingness to provide up to 5000 military peacekeepers at the request of the United Nations. Nepal has a stand-by arrangement with the United Nations for 2000 troops for peacekeeping purposes. So far, 68 Nepalese peacekeepers have sacrificed their valuable lives for the cause of world peace and security while serving in the peace missions under the UN umbrella.

 
Nepalese peacekeepers have earned a very good reputation. In 1988 when the United Nations was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, Mr. Ratna Gurung of Nepal Army was also included in the Secretary General’s official entourage that visited Oslo to receive the Prize. This is indicative of the recognition of Nepal’s contribution to the maintenance of international peace and security. Several Nepal Army Generals have also served as Force Commanders in various peace missions in the past.

 

   

US Administration Philippines

 

The Philippines were transferred from Spain to the United States in the Treaty of Paris (1898), which closed the Spanish-American War. The Tydings-McDuffie Independence Act of 1934 granted the Philippines Commonwealth status. The Act provided for complete independence of the islands in 1945 after 10 years of self-government under U.S. supervision.

The obverse was designed by Melecio Figueroa and features a young Filipina in a flowing dress standing while striking an anvil with a hammer held in her right hand, her left arm is half raised and she holds an olive branch in her hand. In the background is the Mayon volcano with a billowing smoke coming from the crater. On the upper periphery of the coin is the denomination “TEN CENTAVOS” and on the lower periphery is the word “FILIPINAS”. The reverse design features an eagle perched atop a shield with a banner below it which is inscribed “COMMONWEALTH OF THE PHILIPPINES.” On the outer periphery are the words “UNITED STATES OF AMERICA” and the year of issue. To the left of the year is the mint mark “M” for Manila or “D” for Denver.

  

Singapore

 

25 years of Independence


     

In 1990, the celebration of Singapore's 25th Anniversary of Independence brought together a cast of 25,000 performers in a spectacular afternoon and evening celebration directed by Spectak's Ric Birch in Singapore's National Stadium. The Silver Jubilee production of "One Nation, One People" was devised to celebrate the unity in diversity of this island nation, incorporating performances by Chinese, Indian and Malay groups who all unite under the flag of Singapore. Next morning's Straits Times headline read "Silver Jubilee Gets Gold!" which was a fitting tribute to an Olympic producer and a show that involved so many outstanding performances by Singapore's creative community.


Food and Agriculture Organisation’s (FAO) Educational Coin Programme. 


    


These were not just the ordinary 5 cent coins limited circulation coins minted in 1971, that were larger than the 5 cent coins in circulation then, but much lighter as they were made of aluminium alloy (as opposed to the smaller cupro-nickel coins). The coins were ones issued in February 1972 in conjunction with Singapore’s participation in the Food and Agriculture Organisation’s (FAO) Educational Coin Programme.

when the coins were first issued, many of the older folk thought that these were counterfeit coins as one of the ways to detect a counterfeit coin was how light they felt compared to the genuine coins. Counterfeiting of coins was also quite common then. The coin weighed 1.26 grammes (although they were a larger 21.23mm in diameter), as opposed to the smaller cupro-nickel coins (1.41 g at 16.26 mm diameter) that were in circulation then.

The coin features a reverse side that is similar in design to the coins in circulation then, with a pomfret shown on the obverse with the words  “INCREASE PRODUCTION” and “MORE FOOD FROM THE SEA” at the edges. The attached photograph shows the aluminium alloy 5 cent coins in between the old 5 cent coins (on the left) and the ones that are currently in circulation (on the right).

The White Pomfret (aka Silver Pomfret) can grow up to 4-6 kg, but due to overfishing are more commonly caught weighing under 1 kg. The fish's distinctive shape and highly prized flavour in the Indo-Pacific region make it easy to identify on this coin, even though the Singapore mint simply calls it a 'fish'. 

Pomfrets are perciform fishes belonging to the family Bramidae. They are found in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, and the largest species, the Atlantic pomfret, Brama brama, grows up to 1 m (3.3 ft) long.

Several species are important food sources for humans, especially Brama brama in the South Asia. The earlier form of the pomfret's name was pamflet, a word which probably ultimately comes from Portuguese pampo, referring to various fish such as the blue butterfish (Stromateus fiatola).

 Srilanka

Sri Lilawati - Queen 


      



Queen Lilavati (reigned 1197–1200, 1209–1210, and 1211–1212), also known as Leelawathi, was the second woman in Sri Lankan history to rule as sovereign in her own right. Lilavati rose to prominence as the wife of Parakramabahu the Great, the king of Polonnaruwa. Being of royal descent herself, she then ruled as sole monarch on three different occasions in the near-anarchy following Parakramabahu's death, with the backing of various generals. The primary source for her life is the Culavamsa, specifically chapter LXXX.

It is known that Lilavati was the daughter of Sirivallabha and his wife Sugala, and that she had a brother, also called Manabharana. She would have met her future husband when still young as Parakramabahu was her cousin, the son of her uncle Manabharana of Dhakkinadesa. Following his death, Kittisrimegha ascended to the throne of Dhakkinadesa, and Manabharana's family came to live with Sirivallabha in Ruhuna. It is not known at what point she married Parakramabahu.

Lilavati's family – in particular her brother Manabharana of Ruhuna (who was married to both of Parakramabahu's sisters, Mitta and Pabhavati), and the Queen Mother, Sugala – had a very difficult relationship with Parakramabahu. Manabharana fought against Parakramabahu on several occasions, whilst Sugala "had not a mind capable of reflection and was inclined herself by nature to evil". It is not known what role Lilavati played in the complex scheming between them.



Buddha Jayanthi


   


The obverse shows the Dhamma Chakra over which is impose a stupa and the numeral 2500 below it. The reverse shows the design based on the traditional Sinhala design using the Pineapple motif. The value in Sinhala and the year of issue 1957 is superimposed in the center. The value ONE RUPEE in English on left and Tamil on right and in Sinhala `Sri Lanka' at the apex and the anniversary `Buddha Jayanthi' at the bottom. 

These coins are popularly referred to as the Buddha Jayanthi coins. 

Scholars generally agree on 563 BC as the year of the birth of Buddha (563-483 BC). Despite all efforts, the dates of the Buddha's birth and death remain uncertain. The various Buddhist sources agree that the Buddha lived for 80 years, but they disagree on the precise dates. Modern Theravada countries place his birth in 623 BC, and his death in 543 BC, but these dates are rejected by most Western and Indian historians. The ancient chronology, based on Sinhalese sources in Sri Lanka places the Buddha's Parinibbana 218 years before King Asoka's consecration. 

The Maurya Dynasty (321-185 BC) emerged following the withdrawal of Alexander the Great from India in 325 BC, when the dynasty's founder, Emperor Chandragupta reigned for twenty-four years (321-297 BC) before abdicating his throne in favour of his son, Bundusara. His system of government continued under Bundusara, who left no noticeable mark upon the empire. Bundusara was succeeded by his son, Asoka, in 273 BC, although, as was usual, Asoka was not consecrated as Emperor until 265 BC. This puts Buddha's death in 483 BC. Buddha attained enlightenment in 528 B.C. The Buddhist Era start in 543 B.C. by Ancient tradition ignoring the 60 year error.

UN FAO - Grow More Food

   

This commemorative rwo rupee cupro-nickel coin was issued by Central Bank of Ceylon into circulation on 1968 October 16th coincident with the Second World Food Congress, when the first draft of the Indicative World Plan for Agricultural Development was presented under the auspices of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

The obverse shows the tmprint of the statue traditionally believed to be that of King Parakramabahu the Great (1053-1186), which surmounting a basketful of paddy, flanked on either side by ears of paddy. GROW MORE FOOD in Sinhala appear at the apex of the coin and in Tamil and English on the left and right sides along the periphery. The reverse shows large numeral 2 appearing with the value TWO RUPEES superimposed on the figure in Sinhala, Tamil and English. `Sri Lanka' in Sinhala appear at the apex of the coin and in Tamil and English (CEYLON) on the left and right sides. The year of issue 1968 is at the bottom. About 800 years ago, Parakramabahu the great built Lanka's famous irregation system which the government Reconstructed later. The coin underlines national efforts to achieve self-sufficiency in rice by the early 1970s. The obverse design was by Mr W. M. Gardner.

 Parākramabāhu I  or 'Maha Parākramabāhu' (Parākramabāhu the Great) - 1123–1186 - was king of Sri Lanka from 1153 to 1186. During his reign from his capital Polonnaruwa, he unified the three sub kingdoms of the island, becoming one of the last monarchs in Sri Lankan history to do so. He oversaw the expansion and beautification of his capital, constructed extensive irrigation systems, reorganized the country's army, reformed Buddhist practices, encouraged the arts and undertook military campaigns in southern India and in Myanmar. The adage "not even a little water that comes from the rain must flow into the ocean without being made useful to man" is one of his most famous utterances.

Parākramabāhu spent much of his youth in the courts of his uncles Kitti Sri Megha and Sri Vallabha, the kings of the principalities of Dakkhinadesa and Ruhuna respectively, as well as in the court of the King of Rajarata, Gajabahu II. He succeeded his uncle Kitti as king of Dakkhinadesa around 1140 and over the next decade improved both Dakkhinadesa's infrastructure and military. Following a protracted civil war, he secured power over the entire island around 1153 and remained in this position until his death in 1186. During Parākramabāhu's reign, he launched a punitive campaign against the kings of Myanmar, aided the Pandyas against the Chola Empire in southern India and maintained extensive trade relations with China and countries in the Middle East. Within the island, he consecrated religious monuments, built hospitals, social welfare units, canals and large reservoirs, such as the Sea of Parakrama.

5th Non-aligned Conference

      


The fifth Non-aligned Summit that Sri Lanka hosted in Colombo from August 16-19, 1976 was the biggest international congress that the country has ever witnessed. Elaborate preparations were made; various memorabilia such as coins were issued to mark the event.

Roads leading to the main venue of the 5th Non-aligned Summit, the Bandaranaike International Conference Hall from the Bandaranaike International Air Port was decorated with the flags representing over 86 nations that attended the Summit.

Apart from marking Sri Lanka on the international diplomatic map, the Summit left Sri Lanka with a host of nostalgic memories. The luxurious apartment flats constructed to host the national leaders and their representatives are still called "Summit flats" and serve as living monuments of Sri Lanka's hour of pride.

It was Asia's turn to host the Nonaligned Summit exactly fifteen years after the establishment of the movement. The first Summit of the Nonaligned Movement was held in Yugoslavia followed by three others held in the African continent; The 5th Summit of Nonaligned Countries, was held in Colombo, Sri Lanka August 1976. The then Prime Minister Sirmavo Bandaranaike chaired the Summit which was attended by 86 countries.

It was widely considered as a diplomatic triumph of Sri Lanka and that of Madam Bandaranaike, who was the world's first woman Prime Minister who marked her name in the international arena of diplomacy by actively intervening to settle the Sino-Indian border dispute and successfully reaching an agreement with the Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahdur Shasthri on the dispute over the Tamils of Indian origin. She was a patriate in a true sense.

The Colombo Summit was significant in that it paved the way for the emergence of a new economic order which had became a focal point of the Movement and helped advance the de-colonization process around the world.

Among the deliberations made at the Colombo Summit were the group agreed and committed to uphold the principles enunciated by the Movement and committed to work to ease international tensions, and promote disarmament and peaceful coexistence; aspirations that have always been part of the foundations of the policy of non alignment to contribute to world peace and security, as well as to the people who were still fighting for their liberation and against foreign occupation.

The obverse of the coin shows an image of the venue, the Bandaranaike Memorial International conference Hall, and the words NON-ALIGNED NATIONS CONFERENCE and the year of issue 1976 at the bottom. Same text in Sinhala and Tamil on either side.On the reverse, the Large numeral 2 appears with the value TWO RUPEES superimposed on the figure in Sinhala, Tamil and English. SRI LANKA in Sinhala appear at the apex of the coin and in Tamil and English on either side.

    


On the obverse is the image of the venue, the Bandaranaike Memorial International conference Hall, and the words NON-ALIGNED NATIONS CONFERENCE and the year of issue 1976 is at the bottom. Same text in Sinhala and Tamil on either side. On the reverse is a large numeral 5 appears with the value FIVE RUPEES superimposed on the figure in Sinhala, Tamil and English. SRI LANKA in Sinhala appear at the apex of the coin and in Tamil and English on either side.

Mahaweli Development scheme

      

The Mahaweli Master Plan in the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka has earmarked 365,000 ha of land for development of Agriculture in 13 Systems identified under the by the Mahaweli Development Programme. It was intended to construct a series of reservoirs and hydro electricity plants and develop a large area of land with irrigation In order to facilitate the establishment of new settlements and development of agriculture. The implementation of the Mahaweli Development Programme is a mandate of the Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka established in 1979 by an Act of Parliament. The Mahaweli Development Authority ‘s current task is to implement the envisaged project plan in the balance areas proposed by the Master plan and also Gazetted areas. This includes rehabilitating and maintenance of the irrigation network, administration of the land, enhancing the production of agriculture and the post settlement process . In addition to its current responsibility managing irrigation of 175,000 ha of irrigable land is also accountable to managing irrigation of water of the 180,962 ha of irrigable land in the Dry Zone.

Universal Adult Franchise

    

Universal suffrage (also universal adult suffrage, general suffrage or common suffrage) consists of the extension of the right to vote to adult citizens (or subjects), though it may also mean extending that right to minors (Demeny voting) and non-citizens. Although suffrage has two necessary components, the right to vote and opportunities to vote, the term universal suffrage is associated only with the right to vote and ignores the frequency that an incumbent government consults the electorate. Where universal suffrage exists, the right to vote is not restricted by race, sex, belief, wealth, or social status.

The first election to the State Council of Ceylon were held from 13 to 20 June 1931. This was the first election in a British colony which used universal adult franchise.

On the obverse is an image of the old Parliament in the centre, with the words UNIVERSAL ADULT FRANCHISE in Sinhala appear at the apex of the coin and in Tamil and English on either side together with the period 1931-1981, at the bottom. On the reverse is a Large numeral 5 that appears with the value FIVE RUPEES superimposed on the figure in Sinhala, Tamil and English. SRI LANKA in Sinhala appear at the apex of the coin and in Tamil and English on either side. The year of issue 1981 is at the bottom.

International Year for the Shelter of the Homeless

 

    

This project was undertaken as part of the activities of the International Year of Shelter for the Homeless (1987), and was sponsored jointly by the Sri Lanka government , the Physical Planning and Environment department of the Government of the Netherlands, and UN Habitat.

The International Year of Shelter for the Homeless (IYSH) was recognized in 1987 by the United Nations. It was first declared, in principle, in UN resolution 36/71 in 1981, and proclaimed officially in 1982 in resolution 37/221. It was mainly aimed at improving shelter / housing for the poor in general (and not just homeless people), especially in developing countries. It was also a follow-up to the Habitat I conference in 1976.

Sri Lanka Demonstration Project Case Study Part 1 (1985) describes the background and development of the Demonstration Project on the Development of Low-Income Shelter Programmes and the integration of information and training activities. This project was undertaken as part of the activities of the International Year of Shelter for the Homeless (1987), and was sponsored jointly by the Sri Lanka government , the Physical Planning and Environment department of the Government of the Netherlands, and UN Habitat. The purpose of the project was to demonstrate the potential, feasibility and efficiency of innovative low-income urban shelter strategies in the Sri Lankan context. Prototype low-income shelter projects selected for the Demonstration Project represented the main approaches to low-income housing provision in Sri Lanka: upgrading of inner-city informal settlements; shanty upgrading; site-and-services/relocation; and semi-urban neighbourhood upgrading. This UN Habitat report will be of interest to planners and policy makers seeking innovative ways to improve low-income shelter strategies, particularly those at the early phase of their project development.

On the obverse is the IYSH logo in the centre and I Y S H in Sinhala above the logo. and in Tamil and English on either side. The year 1987 appears below the logo. On the reverse, the Large numaral 10 appears with the value in Sinhala Tamil superimposed on the figure and TEN RUPEES in English below. The words SRI LANKA in Sinhala appear above with Tamil and English on either side. The edge of the square coin has milled straits with plain rounded corners.

President Sri Lankabhimanya Ranasinghe Premadasa

   

Sri Lankabhimanya Ranasinghe Premadasa (23 June 1924 – 1 May 1993) was the 3rd President of Sri Lanka from 2 January 1989 to 1 May 1993. Before that, he served as the Prime Minister in the government headed by J. R. Jayewardene from 6 February 1978 to 1 January 1989. He was assassinated in Colombo in a suicide bombing, by the LTTE.

Premadasa's entry into politics was made from the Labour Party, then headed by A. Ekanayake Gunasinha. Having realized that the Labour Party in the 1950s didn't have a very promising future, Premadasa joined the moderate United National Party, and became the first non-Govigama politician to reach to the highest levels in democratic, post-independence Sri Lanka.

During his tenure as Minister of Broadcasting in Dudley Senanayake's cabinet, Premadasa turned Radio Ceylon, the oldest radio station in South Asia, into a public corporation - the Ceylon Broadcasting Corporation on 5 January 1967.

Part of his political program was shelter for the poor, after the United Nations declared a Year of Shelter. Other policies included Jana Saviya, the instrument he used to help the poor, a foster parents scheme, the Gam Udawa project with which he tried to stir up the stupor in the villages, the mobile secretariat whereby he took the central government bureaucracy to the peasants, the Tower Hall Foundation for drama and music, and the pension schemes he initiated for the elder artistes. On the economic front, the garment industry project that he initiated became a forerunner in earning foreign exchange and provision of employment in the villages. This was just one step in the direction of taking the economy to the outstations.

Premadasa met with less success in dealing with Sri Lanka's civil war. When he assumed office, he faced a rebellion in the south from the hardline Sinhala-nationalist, Marxist Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP). The security forces brutally put down the revolt and killed many of its leaders. In the north, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam were facing off against the Indian Peace-Keeping Force. The Indian presence on the island was unpopular, and Premadasa requested India to leave. In order to force IPKF to leave the island, he authorized a clandestine operation to supply arms to LTTE according to the report published by the Sri Lankan Presidential commission to inquire into the 1992 assassination of one of the senior most officers in the Sri Lankan army, Lt Gen Denzil Kobbekaduwa. The inquiry also found that Premadasa ordered clandestine supply of arms to LTTE. In the end, LTTE massacred 774 policemen using the same weapons he had given to LTTE (the policemen were asked to surrender to LTTE in Batticaloa at Premadasa's request). After the IPKF left in 1990, the government's war with the LTTE resumed, and resulted in stalemate.

Premadasa was well known for the unostentatious life led by him in his simple home, away from his luxurious official residence. He perhaps travelled less than any other leading Sri Lankan politician. During his presidency, he also expelled from the UNP his two formidable rivals Lalith Athulathmudali and Gamini Dissanayake, who then joined to form the Democratic United National Front (DUNF). He was found to be involved in the assassination of Lalith Athulathmudali by a presidential commission appointed by President Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga.

Ranasinghe Premadasa was killed on 1 May 1993, during a May day rally, by an LTTE suicide bomber. Little more than a week before, Lalith Athulathmudali had also been assassinated.

Premadasa was married to Hema Wickramatunge and had two children .Sajith and daughter Dulanjali. His son, is the UNP MP for Hambantota District & former deputy Leader of the United National Party.

UN FAO 50th Anniversary

 

     


A commemorative two rupee cupro-nickel coin was issued by Central Bank of Sri Lanka for circulation in July 1995 to mark the 50th Anniversary of the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations. 

The obverse shows numerals 50 at the apex, with ANNIVERSARY in Sinhala, Tamil and English above the official 50th anniversary logo of the FAO at the center, and the period 1945-1995 below it. The FAO theme FOOD FOR ALL in Sinhala appear at the bottom of the coin and in Tamil and English on either side along the periphery. On the reverse, the Large numeral 2 appears with the value TWO RUPEES superimposed on the figure. SRI LANKA in Sinhala appear at the apex of the coin and in Tamil and English on either side. The year of issue `1995 is at the bottom.

50th Anniversary of United Nations

 

     

 

During the closing days of the Second World War, representatives of 51 nations attended the UN Conference on International Organization in San Francisco and signed the UN Charter. This event brought the Organization into existence on 24 October 1945, the day now known as United Nations Day. In 1995 the United Nations celebrated its 50th Anniversary of service to the global community.

The 50th Anniversary was an historic opportunity to encourage international debate about the role of the UN, as well as to celebrate its accomplishments. Coinciding with a turning point in international relations, it was a time to rekindle the ideals of the UN Charter and to spread the spirit of cooperation among the peoples of the world. An overall theme of the celebration, "We The Peoples of the United Nations...United for a Better World," was endorsed by the General Assembly in October 1993. The UN 50th Anniversary celebrations culminated in New York on 24 October 1995 with a commemorative session of the General Assembly. During the formal proceedings of the Assembly, the 50th Anniversary Declaration of the UN was endorsed by the Membership. The Declaration promotes themes of peace, development, equality and justice.

The Anniversary celebration was a global undertaking involving a UN50 Secretariat established by the Secretary-General and 152 National Committees formed by the Member States. In addition, National Committees around the world spearheaded programs such as academic conferences, debates, documentaries, Model UNs, art exhibits, concerts and other popular events. United Nations Associations (UNAs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) also broadened public understanding of UN achievements through educational programs, conferences and numerous activities throughout 1995.

Many of the UN50 programs were geared toward educating young people -- those who will determine the future role of the United Nations. A centerpiece of UN50 educational activities was the Global Teach-In, a call to educators to focus on the UN and global concerns during October 1995. Over 70 countries participated in Global Teach-In activities, ranging from UN quizzes in schools and teacher training workshops to the distribution of School Kits on the United Nations. It is anticipated that the Teach-Ins will continue to be held each year to commemorate UN Day.

UN50 also sought to highlight the scope of work and achievements of the UN in areas such as development, human rights, environmental protection and humanitarian aid that have traditionally received less visibility than peacekeeping and conflict resolution.

A special UN50 emblem was created for use with official Anniversary activities of the Secretariat and Member States. In addition, UN50 commemorative coin and stamp programs were established globally to promote the 50th Anniversary celebration. Approximately 200 postal administration issued stamps commemorating the Anniversary.

In November 1995 the UN flag was carried into outer space by the astronauts of the Space Shuttle Atlantis, to salute United Nations work for the peaceful uses of outer space.

50th Anniversary of Independence of Srilanka 

    

Sri Lanka's Independence Day is celebrated on 4th of February, in accordance with Lipass/Joshua Louis Law to commemorate its internal political independence from British rule on that day in 1948. The day is a national holiday in Sri Lanka. It is celebrated all over the country through flag-hoisting ceremony, dances, parades and performances. Usually, the main celebration takes place in Colombo, where the President raises the national flag and delivers a nationally televised speech.

Many national struggles were made in the history of Sri Lanka. And on the independence day all of these are remembered and celebrated. But the independence movement against the British is especially recalled.

In the President's speech, he highlights the achievements of the government during the past year, raises important issues and gives a call for further development. The President also pays tribute to the national heroes of Sri Lanka, observes two minutes of silence in their memory, challenges and vows to eradicate separatism. A great military parade is also made. In recent years it show cases the power of the army, navy, air force, police and the civil defense force. And the commitment, bravery, national unity and determination to achieve peace is recollected in the minds of people.

Celebrations There are also dances, singing and performances that showcase national unity and culture. Religious observances are also made in many palaces of worship around the country, wishing for peace and prosperity to the country, people and the tri-forces. The national media also try to promote ideas such as bravery, confidence, dedication, national unity, patriotism, nationalism, peace, national responsibility and awareness of national history in the minds of people.

A 10 Rupee bi-metal coin was issued by Central Bank of Sri Lanka on 1998, February, 4th to mark the 50th Anniversary of Sri Lanka regaining Independence. A Bi-metal 10 rupee coin that circulated was issued together with a five thousand rupee gold sovereign proof coin, and an one thousand rupee crown-sized silver proof coin

The obverse depicts an image of the Dalada Maligawa in Kandy with the Pattirippuwa (Octagon) in the forefront. The numeral 50 in numerals and the words INDEPENDENCE ANNIVERSARY in Sinhala, Tamil and English against the figure 50 on right side appear below the image. The period 1948 and 1998 is depicted on either side of the apex.
The reverse depicts the numerals 10 at the center with TEN RUPEES in Sinhala, Tamil and English on either side, and in Braille above, and the year of issue 1998 below. SRI LANKA in Sinhala. Tamil and English at the top center. The periphery of the coin is surrounded by a traditional Sinhala design in motifs.

The edge is grained with the incuse letters C B S L four times only in English, as shown in image of rdge. Unlike the edge of Rs 5 coin which has a dot after each letter and is listed in all three languages Sinhala, Tamil and English.

World cup Cricket 1999 - Cricket World Cup Champions 1996

 

    

The 1996 Cricket World Cup, also called the Wills World Cup after its official sponsors, ITC's Wills brand, was the sixth Cricket World Cup, organised by the International Cricket Council (ICC). It was the second World Cup to be hosted by Pakistan and India, and for the first time by Sri Lanka. The tournament was won by Sri Lanka, who defeated Australia in the final at the Gaddafi Stadium in Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan.

The Wills World Cup was played in India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Controversy dogged the tournament before any games were played; Australia and the West Indies refused to send their teams to Sri Lanka following the Central Bank bombing by the Tamil Tigers in January 1996. Sri Lanka, in addition to offering maximum security to the teams, questioned the validity of citing security concerns when the International Cricket Council had determined it was safe. After extensive negotiations, the ICC ruled that Sri Lanka would be awarded both games on forfeit. As a result of this decision, Sri Lanka automatically qualified for the quarter-finals before playing a game.

On the obverse to the left is an artist's impression of the Cricket World Cup trophy which was won by Sri Lanka, with that year 1996 right above in 3 lines the legend WORLD CRICKET CHAMPIONS in Sinhala, Tamil and English. Sri Lanka in Sinhala appears to the apex of the coin and in Tamil and English to left and right of that around the periphery. Issue year 1999 is depicted at bottom.

On the reverse at the center is an artist's impression of two cricketers a batsman and a wicket keeper. Below the numeral 5 and the value FIVE RUPEES in words in Sinhala, Tamil and English in 3 lines to the left and in Braille to right of the numeral. on left. Above are the words 1999 CRICKET WORLD CUP - MAY 14-JUNE 20. in two arcs. The names of the 12 countries which participated in 1999 World Cup are embossed around the periphery. (SRI LANKA * WEST INDIES * ZIMBABWE * AUSTRALIA * BANGLADESH * ENGLAND * INDIA * KENYA * NEW ZEALAND * PAKISTAN * SCOTLAND * SOUTH AFRICA). The edge was milled with the incused letters C.B.S.L. (Central Bank of Sri Lanka) in English Sinhala and Tamil. The Nickel-Brass coin has been minted to the existing standard Rs. 5/- in circulation.

Syamaposamapada


Buddha Jayanthi 2550 B.E. 

       

Buddha Purnima during Vaishakha month is celebrated as birth anniversary of Gautama Buddha. Gautama Buddha whose birth name was Siddhartha Gautama was a spiritual teacher on whose teachings Buddhism was founded.

The time of Gautama Buddha’s birth and death is uncertain. However, most historians date his lifetime between 563-483 B.C. Most people consider Lumbini, Nepal as birth place of Buddha. Buddha died at the age of 80 at Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh.

For Buddhists, Bodh Gaya is the most important pilgrimage site related to the life of Gautama Buddha. The other three important pilgrimage sites are Kushinagar, Lumbini, and Sarnath. It is believed that Gautama Buddha obtained Enlightenment at Bodhagaya and he first taught the Dharma at Sarnath.

It is believed that Gautama Buddha obtained Enlightenment and passed away on the same day. Buddha Purnima is also known as Buddha Jayanti, Vesak, Vaishaka and Buddha’s Birthday.

In North India Buddha is considered as the 9th incarnation and Lord Krishna as the 8th incarnation of Lord Vishnu. However Buddha is never considered as an Avatar of Vishnu in South Indian belief. In South India Balarama is considered as the 8th incarnation and Krishna as the 9th incarnation of Lord Vishnu. Balarama is counted as an incarnation of Vishnu by the majority of Vaishnava movements. Even Buddhists don’t consider Buddha as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu.

Cricket world Cup

    

The 2007 ICC Cricket World Cup was the 9th edition of the Cricket World Cup tournament that took place in the West Indies from 13 March to 28 April 2007, using the sport's One Day International format. There were a total of 51 matches played, three fewer than at the 2003 World Cup (despite a field larger by two teams).

The 16 competing teams were initially divided into four groups, with the two best-performing teams from each group moving on to a "Super 8" format. From this, Australia, New Zealand, Sri Lanka and South Africa won through to the semi-finals, with Australia defeating Sri Lanka in the final to win their third consecutive World Cup and their fourth overall. Australia's unbeaten record in the tournament increased their total to 29 consecutive World Cup matches without loss, a streak dating back to 23 May 1999, during the group stage of the 1999 World Cup. The tournament also saw upsets in the first round with tournament favourites India and Pakistan failing to making it past the group stage while Bangladesh, the lowest-ranked Test playing nation, and Ireland, an associate (non-test playing) nation, made it to the Super 8s.

On the Obverse to the right is an artist's impression of a bowler. A legend 2007 CRICKET WORLD CUP March 13-April 28 in English appears just above. The words Runners-up in Sinhala, Tamil and English appears to the left. The names of the 16 countries that participated in the 2007 Cricket World Cup Tournament WEST INDIES ENGLAND BANGLADESH IRELAND NEW ZEALAND AUSTRALIA SOUTH AFRICA CANADA, SCOTLAND, BERMUDA, NETHERLANDS, KENYA, ZIMBABWE, INDIA, PAKISTAN appear around the periphery, with SRI LANKA in larger font on top.

On the reverse, at the center, the legal tender value of the coinFIVE RUPEES in Sinhala, Tamil and English languages, and the large numeral 5 to the right. The heraldic lion in the National Flag appears just above and the year 2007 at the bottom center. The name SRI LANKA in Sinhala appears on Top and in Tamil and English appear on the left and right along periphery.
 
Employees Provident Fund - 50th Anniversary


  
  
The Employees Provident Fund (EPF) was established under the Act No. 15 of 1958 and is currently the largest Social Security Scheme in Sri Lanka. With a current asset base of Rs. 1,300 billion, the EPF is a little "Peace of Mind" for the employees of institutions and establishments of the Private Sector, State Sponsored Corporations, Statutory Boards and Private Business. The aim of the EPF is to assure financial stability to the employee in the winter of life and to reward the employee for his or her role in the economic growth of the country.

Being the largest Social Security Scheme in Sri Lanka and having over Rs. 1,300 billon of assets, the EPF can ensure you a safe and stable future. The Administrative aspect of the EPF is handled by the Labour Department of Sri Lanka whilst the management of the funds is handled by EPF department of the Central Bank.

According to the EPF Act, an employee is required to contribute a minimum of 8% and the employer a minimum of 12% of the total salary of the employee monthly. Your EPF balance keeps growing as you mature at your working environment as the cumulative balance in your EPF account, which is maintained by the Central Bank, and is invested in Treasury Bills, Treasury Bonds, Equity, Corporate Debentures and Rupee Securities etc. Depending on the rate of return, an annual interest rate is declared and credited to your account. Thus your investment in time and money is safe, sound and growing annually in the hands of the EPF, giving you peace of mind that you will be stable and able to provide for your family and loved ones in the latter part of life.

The EPF is not only a helping hand or a shoulder to lean upon in the winter of life but a great partner throughout, for it will provide you with the option of obtaining a housing loan by placing 3/4th of your current balance as security. Thus the EPF will help you realize your dream of a home before retirement.

On the obverse is the security and protection offered by the EPF for all its members, symbolized by two upholding palms, below images of an office employee, a tea plucker and a garment factory employee. They depict three industrial sectors in the economy viz Agriculture, Industry and Services. Numeral 50 just above to right, symbolizing the Golden Jubilee of the EPF. Around between two circles, the legend EMPLOYEES PROVIDENT FUND in Sinhala above and in Tamil and English to left and right. with 1958-2008 below. A petal design appear around the periphery.

On the reverse, at the center, the legal tender value of the coin 2 in large numerals, with the currency RUPEES in Sinhala, Tamil and English languages below. An elongated floral design above. The year of issue 2008 at the bottom center, the name SRI LANKA in Sinhala appears on Top and in Tamil and English appear on the left and right along periphery outside a plain circle. Four 8-petal symbols separate the words. A design appear around the periphery.

Switzerland

Curly haired Herdsman

 

   

These 5 francs coins from Switzerland were minted in silver at the beginning, but then, in 1968, the same pattern was struck in copper-nickel.

On the Obverse of the coin is The portrait in right profile of a curly-haired herdsman, wearing a hooded shirt, often assimilated to William Tell, is surrounded with the inscription "CONFOEDERATIO HELVETICA" (Swiss Confederation). The Lettering: CONFOEDERATIO HELVETICA P. BVRKHARD INCT.

On the reverse of the coin is the Lettering: 5FR. 1937 B and the shield flanked by sprigs. The Edge lettering starts with vertical dividing line and group of three stars. Type I; 3 stars/DOMINUS/ PROVIDEBIT/10 stars" Type II; "3 stars/DOMINUS/10 stars/ PROVIDEBIT"". The edge is Lettered; two variations.

United States of America

Bicentenary of Lewis & Clarke Expedition 

 

     

In 1803 President Thomas Jefferson guided a splendid piece of foreign diplomacy through the U.S. Senate: the purchase of Louisiana territory from France. After the Louisiana Purchase Treaty was made, Jefferson initiated an exploration of the newly purchased land and the territory beyond the "great rock mountains" in the West.

Jefferson chose his personal secretary, Meriwether Lewis, an intelligent and literate man who also possessed skills as a frontiersman. Lewis in turn solicited the help of William Clark, whose abilities as draftsman and frontiersman were even stronger. Lewis so respected Clark that he made him a co-commanding captain of the Expedition, even though Clark was never recognized as such by the government. Together they collected a diverse military Corps of Discovery that would be able to undertake a two-year journey to the great ocean.

Jefferson hoped that Lewis and Clark would find a water route linking the Columbia and Missouri rivers. This water link would connect the Pacific Ocean with the Mississippi River system, thus giving the new western land access to port markets out of the Gulf of Mexico and to eastern cities along the Ohio River and its minor tributaries. At the time, American and European explorers had only penetrated what would become each end of the Lewis and Clark Trail up the Missouri several miles to the trapper headquarters at Fort Mandan and up the Columbia just a bit over a hundred miles to a point a little beyond present-day Portland, Oregon.

The Lewis and Clark Expedition paddled its way down the Ohio as it prepared the Expedition to be launched officially from Camp Wood, just outside St. Louis, in the summer of 1804. That summer and fall the company of explorers paddled and pulled themselves upstream, northwest on the Missouri River to Fort Mandan, a trading post, where Corps of Discovery set up camp, wintered, and prepared for the journey to the Pacific.

When the spring of 1805 brought high water and favorable weather, the Lewis and Clark Expedition set out on the next leg of its journey. They traveled up the Missouri to present-day Three Forks, Montana, wisely choosing to follow the western-most tributary, the Jefferson River. This route delivered the explorers to the doorstep of the Shoshone Indians, who were skilled at traversing the great rock mountains with horses. Once over the Bitterroot Mountains, the Corps of Discovery shaped canoe-like vessels that transported them swiftly downriver to the mouth of the Columbia, where they wintered (1805-1806) at Fort Clatsop, on the present-day Oregon side of the river.

With journals in hand, Lewis, Clark, and the other members of the Expedition returned to St. Louis by September 1806 to report their findings to Jefferson. Along the way, they continued to trade what few goods they still had with the Indians and set up diplomatic relations with the Indians. Additionally, they recorded their contact with Indians and described (and at times drew) the shape of the landscape and the creatures of this western world, new to the white man. In doing so, they fulfilled many of Jefferson's wishes for the Expedition. Along the way, William Clark drew a series of maps that were remarkably detailed, noting and naming rivers and creeks, significant points in the landscape, the shape of river shore, and spots where the Corps spent each night or camped or portaged for longer periods of time. Later explorers used these maps to further probe the western portion of the continent.

The Expedition of the Corps of Discovery shaped a crude route to the waters of the Pacific and marked an initial pathway for the new nation to spread westward from ocean to ocean, fulfilling what would become to many Americans an obvious destiny.

Over the next two centuries the new Americans and many immigrants would wash across the central and western portions of what would eventually become the contiguous 48 United States. This wave of development would significantly transform virgin forests and grasslands into a landscape of cities, farms, and harvested forests, displacing fauna such as the buffalo and squeezing the Indians who survived onto reservations.

 

200th Anniversary of the founding of the United States Declaration of Independence

 

    


The United States Bicentennial was a series of celebrations and observances during the mid-1970s that paid tribute to the historical events leading up to the creation of the United States of America as an independent republic. It was a central event in the memory of the American Revolution. The Bicentennial culminated on Sunday, July 4, 1976, with the 200th anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence.

The plans for the Bicentennial began when Congress created the American Revolution Bicentennial Commission July 4, 1966. Initially, the Bicentennial celebration was planned as a single city exposition that would be staged in either Philadelphia or Boston. After 6½ years of tumultuous debate, the Commission recommended that there should not be a single event, and Congress dissolved it on December 11, 1973, and created the American Revolution Bicentennial Administration (ARBA), which was charged with encouraging and coordinating locally sponsored events. David Ryan, a professor at University College Cork, notes that the Bicentennial was celebrated only a year after the humiliating withdrawal from Vietnam in 1975 says the Ford administration stressed the themes of renewal and rebirth based on a restoration of traditional values, giving a nostalgic and exclusive reading of the American past.

The official Bicentennial events began April 1, 1975, when the American Freedom Train launched in Wilmington, Delaware to start its 21-month, 25,388-mile (40,858 km) tour of the 48 contiguous states. On April 18, 1975, President Gerald Ford traveled to Boston to light a third lantern at the historic Old North Church, symbolizing America's third century.  The next day Ford delivered a major address commemorating the 200th anniversary of the Battles of Lexington and Concord in Massachusetts, which began the military aspect of the American Revolution against British colonial rule.

Festivities included elaborate fireworks in the skies above major American cities. President Ford presided over the display in Washington, D.C. which was televised nationally. A large international fleet of tall-masted sailing ships gathered first in New York City on Independence Day and then in Boston about one week later. These nautical parades were named Operation Sail (Op Sail) and witnessed by several million observers. The gathering was the second of six such Op Sail events to date (1964, 1976, 1986, 1992, 2000, and 2012). The vessels docked and allowed the general public to tour the ships in both cities, while their crews were entertained on shore at various ethnic celebrations and parties.

In addition to the presence of the 'tall ships', navies of many nations sent warships to New York harbor for an International Naval Review held the morning of July fourth. President Ford sailed down the Hudson River into New York harbor aboard the guided missile cruiser USS Wainwright (CG-28) to review the international fleet and receive salutes from each visiting ship, ending with a salute from the British missile cruiser HMS London. The review ended just above Liberty Island around 10:30 am.

Several people threw packages labeled "Gulf Oil" and "Exxon" into Boston Harbor in symbolic opposition to corporate power. 

Britain's Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip made a state visit to the United States to tour the country and attend Bicentennial festivities with President and Mrs. Ford. Their visit aboard the Royal Yacht Britannia included stops in Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., Virginia, New York, Connecticut, and Massachusetts.

While in Philadelphia on July 6, 1976, Queen Elizabeth presented the Bicentennial Bell on behalf of the British people. The bell is a replica of the Liberty Bell, cast at the same foundry—Whitechapel Bell Foundry—and bearing the inscription "For the People of the United States of America from the People of Britain 4 July 1976 LET FREEDOM RING."

Local observances included painting mailboxes and fire hydrants red, white, and blue. A wave of patriotism and nostalgia swept the nation and there was a general feeling that the irate era of the Vietnam War and the Watergate constitutional crisis of 1974 had finally come to an end.

In Washington, D.C., the Smithsonian Institution opened a long-term exhibition in its Arts and Industries Building that replicated the look and feel of the 1876 Centennial Exposition. Many of the Smithsonian's museum artifacts dated from the 1876 World's Fair in Philadelphia that commemorated the 100th anniversary of the independence of the United States. The Smithsonian also opened the new home of the National Air and Space Museum July 1, 1976.

NASA commemorated the Bicentennial by staging a science and technology exhibit housed in a series of geodesic domes in the parking lot of the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) called Third Century America. An American flag and the Bicentennial emblem were also painted on the side of the VAB; the emblem remained until 1998, when it was painted over with the NASA insignia. NASA originally planned for Viking 1 to land on Mars on July 4, but the landing was delayed to July 20, the anniversary of the Apollo 11 lunar landing. On the anniversary of the signing of the Constitution, NASA held the rollout ceremony of the first space shuttle (which NASA had planned to name Constitution).

Many commercial products appeared in red, white, and blue packages in an attempt to tie them to the Bicentennial. Products were only permitted to display the trademarked Bicentennial logo by paying a license fee to ARBA.

Many national railroads and shortlines painted locomotives or rolling stock in patriotic color schemes, typically numbered 1776 or 1976, and many military units marked aircraft with special designs in honor of the Bicentennial.

Disneyland temporarily replaced the Main Street Electrical Parade with America on Parade and featured the Sherman Brothers' song "The Glorious Fourth". The parade featured nightly fireworks and ran twice daily from 1975–1977.

John Warner, later U.S. Senator from Virginia, served as ARBA director

The New Jersey Lottery operated a special "Bicentennial Lottery" in which the winner received $1,776 per week (before taxes) for 20 years (a total of $1,847,040).

The overall theme of the entertainment of Super Bowl X, held January 18, was to celebrate the Bicentennial. Players on both teams, the Pittsburgh Steelers and the Dallas Cowboys, wore a special patch with the Bicentennial Logo on their jerseys. The halftime show, featuring the performance group Up with People, was entitled "200 Years and Just a Baby: A Tribute to America's Bicentennial".

The United States Olympic Committee initiated bids to host both the 1976 Summer and Winter Olympic Games in celebration of the Bicentennial. Los Angeles bid for the 1976 Olympics but lost to Montreal, Canada. Denver was awarded the 1976 Olympic Winter Games in 1970, but concern over costs led Colorado voters to reject a referendum to fund the games and the International Olympic Committee awarded the games to Innsbruck, Austria, the 1964 host. As a result, there was no Olympics in the United States in 1976 despite a last minute offer from Salt Lake City to host. However, Lake Placid would host the 1980 Winter Olympics, and Los Angeles would eventually be awarded the 1984 summer games.

As site of the Continental Congress and signing of the Declaration of Independence, Philadelphia served as host for the 1976 NBA All-Star Game, the 1976 National Hockey League All-Star Game, the 1976 NCAA Final Four, and the 1976 Major League Baseball All-Star Game at which President Ford threw out the first pitch. The 1976 Pro Bowl was an exception and was played in New Orleans, likely due to weather concerns.

George Washington was posthumously appointed to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States by the congressional joint resolution Public Law 94-479 passed January 19, 1976, with an effective appointment date of July 4, 1976. This restored Washington's position as the highest-ranking military officer in U.S. history.

 John Fitzgerald Kennedy

 

    

John Fitzgerald Kennedy (May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), commonly known as Jack Kennedy or by his initials JFK, was an American politician who served as the 35th President of the United States from January 1961 until his assassination in November 1963. Notable events that occurred during his presidency included the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Space Race—by initiating Project Apollo (which later culminated in the moon landings), the building of the Berlin Wall, the African-American Civil Rights Movement, and the increased US involvement in the Vietnam War.

After military service as commander of Motor Torpedo Boats PT-109 and PT-59 during World War II in the South Pacific, Kennedy represented Massachusetts's 11th congressional district in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1947 to 1953 as a Democrat. Thereafter, he served in the U.S. Senate from that state from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President and Republican candidate Richard Nixon in the 1960 U.S. Presidential Election. At age 43, he was the youngest man to have been elected to the office, the second-youngest president (after Theodore Roosevelt), and the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president. To date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize.

Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas on November 22, 1963. Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and charged with the crime that night. Jack Ruby shot and killed Oswald two days later, before a trial could take place. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin. The United States House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA) agreed with the conclusion that Oswald fired the shots which killed the president, but also concluded that Kennedy was probably assassinated as the result of a conspiracy.

Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedy's private life has come to light. Details of Kennedy's health problems with which he struggled have become better known, especially since the 1990s. Although initially kept secret from the general public, reports of Kennedy being unfaithful in marriage have garnered much press. Kennedy ranks highly in public opinion ratings of U.S. presidents but there is a gap between his public reputation and his reputation among academics.

Sacagawea 

 

 

Sacagawea (1788 – 1812), also Sakakawea or Sacajawea, was a Lemhi Shoshone woman who accompanied the Lewis and Clark Expedition as an interpreter and guide during their exploration of the Western United States. With the expedition, she traveled thousands of miles from North Dakota to the Pacific Ocean between 1804 and 1806.

Sacagawea has become an important part of the Lewis and Clark legend in the American public imagination. The National American Woman Suffrage Association of the early twentieth century adopted her as a symbol of women's worth and independence, erecting several statues and plaques in her memory, and doing much to spread the story of her accomplishments.

In 2000, the United States Mint issued the Sacagawea dollar coin in her honor, depicting Sacagawea and her son, Jean Baptiste Charbonneau. Because no contemporary image of Sacagawea exists, the face on the coin was modeled on a modern Shoshone-Bannock woman named Randy'L He-dow Teton.

In 2001, she was given the title of Honorary Sergeant, Regular Army, by then-president Bill Clinton.

United Kingdom

 

Great British Florin

 

   

A proof pattern florin was struck in limited numbers in 1848, and this design was accepted. It was produced in quantity for general circulation the next year 1849, but was unpopular at first. 

It seems to be human nature to resist change, new coins and money in particular are always criticised when they first appear. I suppose most people prefer to be familiar with the money in their pockets. The wording "DEI GRATIA" or its abbreviation "D.G." had been omitted from the design. The translation from Latin means "by the grace of God", and the new coin was criticised heavily for being "Godless and graceless", and is still know to this day as the "Godless" florin. 

A new design had to be introduced, and in 1852 the beautiful "gothic" design, similar to that on the crown of 1847, was introduced into circulation, and it continued in production, with a few minor changes, until Victoria's golden jubilee year, 1887. 

The furore over the "godless" design almost sunk the florin, the new gothic design rescued and revived its chances of success. 

The florin itself continued until 1967, after which a "10 new pence" coin was issued, identical in size and weight to the old florin or two shilling piece. In this way, the florin did indeed help to pave the way for Britain's decimalization, although it did take 122 years! 

During the reign of Edward VII, even though a brand new reverse design had been introduced, an attractive Standing Britannia design. 

In 1911, on the new coins of George V, the value "One Florin" remains, but the wording "Two Shillings" disappears. Even when the reverse designs changed from 1927 to 1936, this value mark remained the same.

With the introduction of new designs for George VI in 1937, the wording "Two Shillings" re-appears, but the words "One Florin" were removed. This continued, not only during the minor design changes of 1949, but right through the introduction of new designs for Elizabeth II, until the very last florins of 1967 and 1970. 

It is interesting to note the changing denomination or value mark on florins as on other coins.
On the first florin design, the "Godless", the value is shown as "One Florin - One Tenth of a Pound" indicating clearly its decimal connection. This description continued on the gothic design until 1887. By 1887 when the Jubilee design was introduced, the mark of value was entirely removed, presumably the florin had become such a familiar coin, that it was not considered necessary to remind people of its value. 

In 1893, with the introduction of the "Old Head" design, the value mark re-appeared, but this time reading "One Florin - Two Shillings", and this was continued .During the reign of Edward VII, even though a brand new reverse design had been introduced, an attractive Standing Britannia design. 

In 1911, on the new coins of George V, the value "One Florin" remains, but the wording "Two Shillings" disappears. Even when the reverse designs changed from 1927 to 1936, this value mark remained the same. 

With the introduction of new designs for George VI in 1937, the wording "Two Shillings" re-appears, but the words "One Florin" were removed. This continued, not only during the minor design changes of 1949, but right through the introduction of new designs for Elizabeth II, until the very last florins of 1967 and 1970.

50 Cents

Britannia

1969 - 81

 

    

 

1982 - 84

     

 

 1985 - 1997

     

 

1998 - 2008

 

    

Britannia is an ancient term for Roman Britain and also a female personification of the island. The name is Latin, and derives from the Greek form Prettanike or Brettaniai, which originally designated a collection of islands with individual names, including Albion or Great Britain; however, by the 1st century BC Britannia came to be used for Great Britain specifically. In AD 43 the Roman Empire began its conquest of the island, establishing a province they called Britannia, which came to encompass the parts of the island south of Caledonia (roughly Scotland). The native Celtic inhabitants of the province are known as the Britons. In the 2nd century, Roman Britannia came to be personified as a goddess, armed with a trident and shield and wearing a Corinthian helmet.

The Latin name Britannia long survived the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, and yielded the name for the island in most European and various other languages, including the English Britain and the modern Welsh Prydain. After centuries of declining use, the Latin form was revived during the English Renaissance as a rhetorical evocation of a British national identity. Especially following the Acts of Union in 1707, which joined the Kingdoms of England and Scotland, the personification of the martial Britannia was used as an emblem of British imperial power and unity. She was featured on all modern British coinage series until the redesign in 2008, and still appears annually on the gold and silver 'Britannia' bullion coin series.

 

United Kingdom referendum

 

   

The United Kingdom referendum of 1975 was a post-legislative referendum held on 5 June 1975 in the United Kingdom to gauge support for the country's continued membership of the European Economic Community (EEC), often known as the Common Market at the time, which it had entered in 1973 under the Conservative government of Edward Heath. Labour's manifesto for the October 1974 general election promised that the people would decide "through the ballot box" whether to remain in the EEC. The electorate expressed significant support for EEC membership, with 67% in favour on a 65% turnout. This was the first referendum that was held throughout the entire United Kingdom; previously, other referendums had been arranged only in Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, Greater London and individual towns. It remained the only UK-wide referendum until the United Kingdom Alternative Vote referendum, 2011.

The February 1974 general election yielded a Labour minority government, which then won a majority in the October 1974 general election. Labour pledged in its February 1974 manifesto to renegotiate the terms of British accession to the EEC, and to then consult the people on whether Britain should stay in the EEC on the new terms if they were acceptable to the government. The Labour Party had traditionally feared the consequences of EEC membership, such as the large differentials between the high price of food under the Common Agricultural Policy and the low prices prevalent in Commonwealth markets, as well as the loss of economic sovereignty and the freedom of governments to engage in socialist industrial policies, and party leaders stated their opinion that the Conservatives had negotiated unfavourable terms for Britain. The EEC heads of government agreed to a deal in Dublin by 11 March 1975; Wilson declared "I believe that our renegotiation objectives have been substantially though not completely achieved", and that the government would recommend a vote in favour of continued membership.  On 9 April, the House of Commons voted 396 to 170 to continue within the Common Market on the new terms. In tandem with these developments, the government drafted a Referendum Bill, to be moved in case of a successful renegotiation.

The referendum debate was an unusual time for British politics. During the campaign, the Labour Cabinet was split and its members campaigned on each side of the question, a rare breach of Cabinet collective responsibility. Most votes in the House of Commons in preparation for the referendum were only carried thanks to opposition support, and the government faced several defeats on technical issues such as election counts. Finally, although the government declared in advance that it would adhere to the result, the referendum itself was not binding upon the government in the strict legal sense, due to the principle of parliamentary sovereignty. This principle would itself come into question as a consequence of EEC membership in the Factortame litigation.

 

50th Anniversary of Normandy Invasion

 

    

The Invasion of Normandy was the invasion by and establishment of Western Allied forces in Normandy, during Operation Overlord in 1944 during World War II; the largest amphibious invasion to ever take place.

D-Day, the day of the initial assaults, was Tuesday 6 June 1944. Allied land forces that saw combat in Normandy on that day came from Canada, the Free French forces, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In the weeks following the invasion, Polish forces also participated, as well as contingents from Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Greece, and the Netherlands.[4] Most of the above countries also provided air and naval support, as did the Royal Australian Air Force, the Royal New Zealand Air Force,[nb 1] and the Royal Norwegian Navy.

The Normandy invasion began with overnight parachute and glider landings, massive air attacks and naval bombardments. In the early morning, amphibious landings on five beaches codenamed Juno, Gold, Omaha, Utah, and Sword began and during the evening the remaining elements of the parachute divisions landed. Land forces used on D-Day deployed from bases along the south coast of England, the most important of these being Portsmouth.

50th Anniversary of NHS


    

The four publicly funded health care systems in the countries of the United Kingdom are referred to as the National Health Service (NHS).

The systems are primarily funded through central taxation. They provide a comprehensive range of health services, the vast majority of which are free at the point of use for people legally resident in the United Kingdom. The four systems are mostly independent from each other although some functions might be routinely performed on behalf of the UK Department of Health or for one of the other three systems (e.g. Northern Ireland has no high security mental hospitals and thus depends on using hospitals in Great Britain, routinely Carstairs State Mental Hospital in Scotland for male patients and Rampton Secure Hospital in England for female patients);[1] otherwise, they operate under different management, rules, and political authority.

The individual systems are:

    National Health Service (England)
    Health and Social Care in Northern Ireland
    NHS Scotland
    NHS Wales

All services are often referred to as "the NHS", although only the English NHS is officially called the "National Health Service". All of the services were founded in 1948, based on legislation passed in 1946, 1947 and 1948. NHS Wales was part of the same structure as England until powers over the NHS in Wales were transferred to the Secretary of State for Wales in 1969, and responsibility for NHS Wales was passed to the Welsh Assembly (now the Welsh Government) under devolution in 1999.

Public Libraries


    


A Public library is a library that is accessible by the general public and is generally funded from public sources, such as taxes. It is operated by librarians and library paraprofessionals, who are also civil servants. In the United States there are a fair number of public libraries that are 501(c) organizations, not tax-supported and whose employees are not civil servants.

There are five fundamental characteristics shared by public libraries. The first is that they are generally supported by taxes (usually local, though any level of government can and may contribute); they are governed by a board to serve the public interest; they are open to all, and every community member can access the collection; they are entirely voluntary in that no one is ever forced to use the services provided; and public libraries provide basic services without charge.

Public libraries exist in many countries across the world and are often considered an essential part of having an educated and literate population. Public libraries are distinct from research libraries, school libraries, and other special libraries in that their mandate is to serve the general public's information needs (rather than the needs of a particular school, institution, or research population). Public libraries also provide free services such as preschool story times to encourage early literacy, quiet study and work areas for students and professionals, or book clubs to encourage appreciation of literature in adults. Public libraries typically allow users to take books and other materials off the premises temporarily; they also have non-circulating reference collections and provide computer and Internet access to patron.

Year 2000 marked the 150th Celebration of the Establishment of Public Libraries.

4 Minute Mile

 

   

 

In the sport of athletics, the four-minute mile is the act of completing the mile run (1,760 yards, or 1,609.344 metres) in less than four minutes. It was first achieved in 1954 by Roger Bannister in 3:59.4. The "four-minute barrier" has since been broken by many male athletes, and is now the standard of all male professional middle distance runners. In the last 50 years the mile record has been lowered by almost 17 seconds. Running a mile in four minutes translates to a speed of 15 miles per hour (24.14 km/h, or 2:29.13 per kilometer, or 14.91 seconds per 100 meters).

Breaking the four-minute barrier was first achieved on 6 May 1954, by Englishman Roger Bannister,[3] with the help of fellow-runners as pacemakers. Two months later, during the 1954 British Empire and Commonwealth Games hosted in Vancouver, B.C., two competing runners, Australia's John Landy and Bannister, ran the distance of one mile in under four minutes. The race's end is memorialised in a statue of the two (with Landy glancing over his shoulder, thus losing the race) placed in front of the Pacific National Exhibition entrance plaza.

New Zealand's John Walker, the first man to run the mile under 3:50, managed to run 135 sub-four-minute miles during his career (during which he was the first person to run over 100 sub-four-minute miles), and American Steve Scott has run the most sub-four-minute miles, with 136. Currently, the mile record is held by Morocco's Hicham El Guerrouj, who ran a time of 3:43.13 in Rome in 1999.

In 1964, America's Jim Ryun became the first high-school runner to break four minutes for the mile, running 3:59.0 as a junior and a then American record 3:55.3 as a senior in 1965. Tim Danielson (1966) and Marty Liquori (1967) also came in under four minutes, but Ryun's high-school record stood until Alan Webb ran 3:53.43 in 2001. Ten years later, in 2011, Lukas Verzbicas became the fifth high-schooler under four minutes.

Another illustration of the progression of performance in the men's mile is that, in 1994, forty years after Bannister's breaking of the barrier, the Irish runner Eamonn Coghlan became the first man over the age of 40 to run a sub-four-minute mile. Because Coghlan surpassed the mark indoors and before the IAAF validated indoor performances as being eligible for outdoor records, World Masters Athletics still had not recognised a sub-4-minute-mile performance as a record in the M40 division. Many elite athletes made the attempts to extend their careers beyond age 40 to challenge that mark. Over 18 years after Coghlan, that was finally achieved by UK's Anthony Whiteman, running 3:58.79 on 2 June 2012.

No woman has yet run a four-minute mile. As of 2014, the women's world record is held by retired Russian Svetlana Masterkova, with a time of 4:12.56 in 1996.

In 1997, Daniel Komen of Kenya ran two miles in less than eight minutes, doubling up on Bannister's accomplishment.

Some sources (including Olympic medalist Peter Radford) contend the first successful four-minute mile was run in London by James Parrott on 9 May 1770. Parrott's route began on Goswell Road, before turning down Old Street, finishing at St Leonard's, Shoreditch. Although timing methods at this time were – following the invention of the chronometer by John Harrison – accurate enough to measure the four minutes correctly the record is not recognised by modern sporting bodies. Neal Bascomb notes in The Perfect Mile, however, that "even nineteenth-century historians cast a skeptical eye on the account."

It is also reputed that Glenn Cunningham achieved a four-minute mile in a workout. In addition to being unsubstantiated, a workout run would not count as a record.[17]

 

250th Anniversary of Publication of English Dictionery

 

   

 

Published on 15 April 1755 and written by Samuel Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language, sometimes published as Johnson's Dictionary, is among the most influential dictionaries in the history of the English language.

There was dissatisfaction with the dictionaries of the period, so in June 1746 a group of London booksellers contracted Johnson to write a dictionary for the sum of 1,500 guineas (£1,575), equivalent to about £210,000 in 2015. Johnson took nearly nine years to complete the work, although he had claimed he could finish it in three. Remarkably, he did so single-handedly, with only clerical assistance to copy out the illustrative quotations that he had marked in books. Johnson produced several revised editions during his life.

Until the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary 173 years later, Johnson's was viewed as the pre-eminent English dictionary. According to Walter Jackson Bate, the Dictionary "easily ranks as one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship, and probably the greatest ever performed by one individual who labored under anything like the disadvantages in a comparable length of time".

100th Anniversary of Girl Guiding

   

Girlguiding is the operating name of The Guide Association (originally The Girl Guides Association), the national Guiding organisation of the United Kingdom. Guiding began in the UK in 1910 as an organisation especially for girls run along similar lines to The Boy Scouts Association. The Guide Association was a founder member of the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts (WAGGGS) in 1928. At the end of 2013, the Association had more than 553,000 members and continues to be the largest girl only youth organisation in the UK.

At present about one in four of all eight-year-old girls in the UK are Brownies. Although, since January 2007, The Scout Association requires its registered Scout groups in the UK to accept girls, this has not affected the numbers of girls joining Girlguiding.[citation needed]

Girlguiding is a charitable organisation and adult leaders are not paid for their time. For this reason, and for its work aiming for the personal and social development of young people, Girlguiding is a member of The National Council for Voluntary Youth Services (NCVYS).

 150 years of Victoria Cross

    


The Victoria Cross (VC) is the highest military decoration awarded for valour "in the face of the enemy" to members of the armed forces of various Commonwealth countries, and previous British Empire territories. It is first in the order of wear in the United Kingdom honours system, and takes precedence over all other orders, decorations, and medals. It may be awarded to a person of any military rank in any service and to civilians under military command. The VC is usually presented to the recipient or to their next of kin by the British monarch at an investiture held at Buckingham Palace.

The VC was introduced on 29 January 1856 by Queen Victoria to honour acts of valour during the Crimean War. Since then, the medal has been awarded 1,357 times to 1,354 individual recipients. Only 14 medals, ten to members of the British Army, and four to the Australian Army, have been awarded since the Second World War. The traditional explanation of the source of the gunmetal from which the medals are struck is that it derives from Russian cannon captured at the Siege of Sevastopol. Recent research has thrown doubt on this story, suggesting a variety of origins for the material actually making up the medals themselves. Research has established that the gunmetal for many of the medals came from Chinese cannons  that may have been captured from the Russians in 1855.

Due to its rarity, the VC is highly prized and the medal has fetched over £400,000 at auction.[6] A number of public and private collections are devoted to the Victoria Cross. The private collection of Lord Ashcroft, amassed since 1986, contains over one-tenth of all VCs awarded. Following a 2008 donation to the Imperial War Museum, the Ashcroft collection went on public display alongside the museum's Victoria and George Cross collection in November 2010.

Beginning with the Centennial of Confederation in 1967, Canada followed in 1975 by Australia and New Zealand developed their own national honours systems, separate and independent of the British or Imperial honours system. As each country’s system evolved, operational gallantry awards were developed with the premier award of each system, the VC for Australia, the Canadian VC and the VC for New Zealand being created and named in honour of the Victoria Cross. These are unique awards of each honours system, recommended, assessed, gazetted and presented by each country.

Royal Shield

   

The Royal coat of arms is the official coat of arms of the British monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. These arms are used by the Queen in her official capacity as monarch of the United Kingdom. Variants of the Royal Arms are used by other members of the Royal Family; and by the British government in connection with the administration and government of the country. In Scotland, the Queen has a separate version of the Royal Arms, a variant of which is used by the Scotland Office.

The shield is quartered, depicting in the first and fourth quarters the three passant guardant lions of England; in the second, the rampant lion and double tressure flory-counterflory of Scotland; and in the third, a harp for Ireland. The crest is a statant guardant lion wearing the St Edward's Crown, himself on another representation of that crown. The dexter supporter is a likewise crowned English lion; the sinister, a Scottish unicorn. According to legend a free unicorn was considered a very dangerous beast; therefore the heraldic unicorn is chained,as were both supporting unicorns in the Royal coat of arms of Scotland. In the greenery below, a thistle, Tudor Rose and shamrock are present, representing Scotland, England and Ireland respectively. The coat features both the motto of English monarchs, Dieu et mon droit (God and my right), and the motto of the Order of the Garter, Honi soit qui mal y pense (shame upon him who thinks evil of it) on a representation of the Garter behind the shield.

1 Pound

 

Royal Coat of arms

   

The Royal coat of arms is the official coat of arms of the British monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. These arms are used by the Queen in her official capacity as monarch of the United Kingdom. Variants of the Royal Arms are used by other members of the Royal Family; and by the British government in connection with the administration and government of the country. In Scotland, the Queen has a separate version of the Royal Arms, a variant of which is used by the Scotland Office.

The shield is quartered, depicting in the first and fourth quarters the three passant guardant lions of England; in the second, the rampant lion and double tressure flory-counterflory of Scotland; and in the third, a harp for Ireland. The crest is a statant guardant lion wearing the St Edward's Crown, himself on another representation of that crown. The dexter supporter is a likewise crowned English lion; the sinister, a Scottish unicorn. According to legend a free unicorn was considered a very dangerous beast; therefore the heraldic unicorn is chained, as were both supporting unicorns in the Royal coat of arms of Scotland. In the greenery below, a thistle, Tudor Rose and shamrock are present, representing Scotland, England and Ireland respectively. The coat features both the motto of English monarchs, Dieu et mon droit (God and my right), and the motto of the Order of the Garter, Honi soit qui mal y pense (shame upon him who thinks evil of it) on a representation of the Garter behind the shield.

Onopordum Acanthimum - Scottish Thistle

   

Onopordum acanthium (Cotton thistle, Scotch thistle), is a flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. It is native to Europe and Western Asia from the Iberian Peninsula east to Kazakhstan, and north to central Scandinavia, and widely naturalised elsewhere. It is a vigorous biennial plant with coarse, spiny leaves and conspicuous spiny-winged stems.

It is a biennial plant, producing a large rosette of spiny leaves the first year. The plants typically germinate in the autumn after the first rains and exist as rosettes throughout the first year, forming a stout, fleshy taproot that may extend down 30 cm or more for a food reserve.

In the second year, the plant grows (0.2–) 0.5–2.5 (–3) m tall and a width of 1.5 m. The leaves are 10–50 cm wide, are alternate and spiny, often covered with white woolly hairs and with the lower surface more densely covered than the upper. The leaves are deeply lobed with long, stiff spines along the margins. Fine hairs give the plant a greyish appearance. The massive main stem may be 10 cm wide at the base, and is branched in the upper part. Each stem shows a vertical row of broad, spiny wings (conspicuous ribbon-like leafy material), typically 2–3 cm wide, extending to the base of the flower head.

The flowers are globe shaped, 2–6 cm in diameter, from dark pink to lavender, and are produced in the summer. The flower buds form first at the tip of the stem and later at the tip of the axillary branches. They appear singly or in groups of two or three on branch tips. The plants are androgynous, with both pistil and stamens, and sit above numerous, long, stiff, spine-tipped bracts, all pointing outwards, the lower ones wider apart and pointing downwards. After flowering, the ovary starts swelling and forms about 8,400 to 40,000 seeds per plant.

Onopordum acanthium reproduces only by seeds. Most seeds germinate in autumn after the first rains, but some seeds can germinate year round under favourable moisture and temperature conditions. Seeds that germinate in late autumn become biennials. But when they germinate earlier, they can behave as annuals. Buried seed can remain viable in the soil seed bank for at least seven years and possibly for up to twenty years or more. Yearly seed production and seed dormancy are highly variable depending on environmental conditions. The slender and smooth achenes are about 3 mm long and are brown with gray markings. They are tipped with a pappus of slender bristles. Mainly locally dispersed by wind, or more widely by humans, birds, wildlife, livestock or streams, the seeds are sensitive to light and only germinate when close to the surface. Seedlings will emerge from soil depths up to 4.5 cm, with 0.5 cm being optimal.[4] While some seeds will germinate in the dark, studies indicate that most germination occurs with alternating light/dark cycles, with 8 hours being the optimal day length.

The leaves of Cotton thistle provide food for the caterpillars of some Lepidoptera, such as the Thistle Ermine (Myelois circumvoluta).

Welsh Leek

    

The leek is a vegetable that belongs, along with herro onion and garlic, to the genus Allium, currently placed in family Amaryllidaceae, subfamily Allioideae. Historically many scientific names were used for leeks, which are now treated as cultivars of Allium ampeloprasum. Two related vegetables, elephant garlic and Kurrat, are also cultivars of A. ampeloprasum, although different in their uses as food.

The edible part of the leek plant is a bundle of leaf sheaths that is sometimes erroneously called a stem or stalk.

Rather than forming a tight bulb like the onion, the leek produces a long cylinder of bundled leaf sheaths that are generally blanched by pushing soil around them (trenching). They are often sold as small seedlings in flats that are started off early in greenhouses, to be planted out as weather permits. Once established in the garden, leeks are hardy; many varieties can be left in the ground during the winter to be harvested as needed.

Leeks are easy to grow from seed and tolerate standing in the field for an extended harvest. Leeks usually reach maturity in the autumn months, and they have few pest or disease problems. Leeks can be bunched and harvested early when they are about the size of a finger or pencil, or they can be thinned and allowed to grow to a much larger mature size. Hilling leeks can produce better specimens.

Quescus Robur

    

Quercus robur is commonly known as the English oak or pedunculate oak or French oak. It is native to most of Europe, and to Anatolia to the Caucasus, and also to parts of North Africa.

Quercus robur is a large deciduous tree, with circumference of grand oaks from 4 m (13 ft) to exceptional 12 m (39 ft).[citation needed] The Majesty Oak with a circumference of 12.2 m (40 ft) is the thickest tree in Great Britain,[citation needed] and the Kaive Oak in Latvia with a circumference of 10.2 m (33 ft) is the thickest tree in Northern Europe.[citation needed] Q. robur has lobed and nearly sessile (very short-stalked) leaves 7–14 cm (2.8–5.5 in) long. Flowering takes place in mid spring, and their fruit, called acorns, ripen by the following autumn. The acorns are 2–2.5 cm (0.79–0.98 in) long, pedunculate (having a peduncle or acorn-stalk, 3–7 cm (1.2–2.8 in) long) with one to four acorns on each peduncle.

It is a long-lived tree, with a large wide spreading crown of rugged branches. While it may naturally live to an age of a few centuries, many of the oldest trees are pollarded or coppiced, both pruning techniques that extend the tree's potential lifespan, if not its health. Two individuals of notable longevity are the Stelmužė Oak in Lithuania and the Granit oak in Bulgaria, which are believed to be more than 1,500 years old, possibly making them the oldest oaks in Europe; another specimen, called the 'Kongeegen' ('Kings Oak'), estimated to be about 1,200 years old, grows in Jaegerspris, Denmark.[citation needed] Yet another can be found in Kvilleken, Sweden, that is over 1,000 years old and 14 metres (46 ft) around. Of maiden (not pollarded) specimens, one of the oldest is the great oak of Ivenack, Germany. Tree-ring research of this tree and other oaks nearby gives an estimated age of 700 to 800 years old. Also the Bowthorpe Oak in Lincolnshire, England is estimated to be 1,000 years old making it the oldest in the UK, although there is Knightwood Oak in the New Forest which is also said to be as old. Highest density of the grand oak trees Q. robur with a circumference 4 metres (13 ft) and more is in Latvia.

Royal Shield

   

The Royal coat of arms is the official coat of arms of the British monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. These arms are used by the Queen in her official capacity as monarch of the United Kingdom. Variants of the Royal Arms are used by other members of the Royal Family; and by the British government in connection with the administration and government of the country. In Scotland, the Queen has a separate version of the Royal Arms, a variant of which is used by the Scotland Office.

The shield is quartered, depicting in the first and fourth quarters the three passant guardant lions of England; in the second, the rampant lion and double tressure flory-counterflory of Scotland; and in the third, a harp for Ireland. The crest is a statant guardant lion wearing the St Edward's Crown, himself on another representation of that crown. The dexter supporter is a likewise crowned English lion; the sinister, a Scottish unicorn. According to legend a free unicorn was considered a very dangerous beast; therefore the heraldic unicorn is chained, as were both supporting unicorns in the Royal coat of arms of Scotland. In the greenery below, a thistle, Tudor Rose and shamrock are present, representing Scotland, England and Ireland respectively. The coat features both the motto of English monarchs, Dieu et mon droit (God and my right), and the motto of the Order of the Garter, Honi soit qui mal y pense (shame upon him who thinks evil of it) on a representation of the Garter behind the shield.

Welsh Dragon

   

The Welsh Dragon – Welsh: Y Ddraig Goch ("the red dragon") pronounced [ə ˈðraiɡ ˈɡoːχ] – appears on the national flag of Wales. The flag is also called Y Ddraig Goch. The oldest recorded use of the dragon to symbolise Wales is in the Historia Brittonum, written around AD 829, but it is popularly supposed to have been the battle standard of King Arthur and other ancient Celtic leaders. Its association with these leaders along with other evidence from archaeology, literature, and documentary history lead many to suppose that it evolved from an earlier Romano-British national symbol.  During the reigns of the Tudor monarchs, the red dragon was used as a supporter in the English Crown's coat of arms (one of two supporters, along with the traditional English lion). The red dragon is often seen as symbolising all things Welsh, and is used by many public and private institutions. These include the Welsh Government, Visit Wales, and numerous local authorities including Blaenau Gwent, Cardiff, Carmarthenshire, Rhondda Cynon Taf, Swansea, and sports bodies, including the Sport Wales National Centre, the Football Association of Wales, Cardiff City F.C., Newport Gwent Dragons, and London Welsh RFC.

Three lions Passant Gurdant

   

The lion is a common charge in heraldry. It traditionally symbolises bravery, valour, strength, and royalty, because historically it has been regarded as the king of beasts.

Lions had previously been used by the Norman dynasty as royal emblems, and Attributed arms have been invented for kings who pre-dated the systematization of hereditary English heraldry that occurred in the second half of the 12th century. King Henry II of England (1133–1189) had used a coat with a lion on it; his children experimented with different combinations of lions. King Richard I (1189–1199) used a single lion rampant, or perhaps two lions affrontés, on his first seal, but later used three lions passant in his 1198 Great Seal of England, and thus established the lasting design of the Royal Arms of England. Although King John (1199–1216) had a seal in 1177, with two lions passant guardant, the three lions passant or on a field gules were used as the Royal Arms (or King's Arms) by Kings John (1199–1216), Henry III (1216–1272), Edward I (1272–1307), and Edward II (1307–1327).

Celtic Cross

    

Celtic cross (Irish: cros Cheilteach, Scottish Gaelic: crois Cheilteach, Manx: crosh Cheltiagh, Welsh: croes Geltaidd, Cornish: krows keltek, Breton: kroaz geltek) is a symbol that combines a cross with a ring surrounding the intersection. It belongs to a kind of crosses with a nimbus. In the Celtic Christian world it was combined with the Christian cross and this design was often used for high crosses – a free-standing cross made of stone and often richly decorated. With the Celtic Revival the shape, usually decorated with interlace and other motifs from Insular art, became popular for funerary monuments and other uses, and has remained so, spreading well beyond Ireland.

In Ireland, it is a popular legend that the Celtic Christian cross was introduced by Saint Patrick or possibly Saint Declan during his time converting the pagan Irish, though there are no examples from this early period. It has often been claimed that Patrick combined the symbol of Christianity with the sun cross, to give pagan followers an idea of the importance of the cross by linking it with the idea of the life-giving properties of the sun. Other interpretations claim that placing the cross on top of the circle represents Christ's supremacy over the pagan sun.

A distinctive Insular tradition of erecting monumental stone high crosses began by the 8th century, and possibly earlier. They probably followed earlier versions in wood, perhaps faced in metalwork. Some of these 'Celtic' crosses bear inscriptions in ogham. Standing crosses in Ireland and areas under Irish influence tend to be shorter and more massive than their Anglo-Saxon equivalents, which have mostly lost their headpieces, and therefore perhaps required the extra strength provided by the ring. Irish examples with a head in Celtic cross form include the Cross of Kells, Ardboe High Cross, the crosses at Monasterboice, and the Cross of the Scriptures, Clonmacnoise, as well as those in Scotland at Iona and the Kildalton Cross, which may be the earliest to survive in good condition. There are surviving free-standing crosses in Cornwall, including St Piran's cross at Perranporth, and Wales. Other stone crosses are found in the former Northumbria and Scotland, and further south in England, where they merge with the similar Anglo-Saxon cross making tradition, in the Ruthwell Cross for example. By about 1200 the initial wave of cross building came in to an end in Ireland.

Forth Railway Bridge

    

The Forth Bridge is a cantilever railway bridge over the Firth of Forth in the east of Scotland, 9 miles (14 kilometres) west of Edinburgh City Centre. It was opened on 4 March 1890 and spans a total length of 8,296 feet (2,528.7 m). It is sometimes referred to as the Forth Rail Bridge to distinguish it from the Forth Road Bridge, though this has never been its official name.

The bridge leaves Edinburgh at South Queensferry and arrives in Fife at North Queensferry. Its construction began in 1882 and took 8 years to complete.

Until 1917, when the Quebec Bridge was completed, the Forth Bridge had the longest single cantilever bridge span in the world, and it still has the world's second-longest single span. The bridge and its associated railway infrastructure is owned by Network Rail Infrastructure Limited. It is considered an iconic structure and a symbol of Scotland.

Menai Suspension Bridge

 

     

The Menai Suspension Bridge is a suspension bridge between the island of Anglesey and the mainland of Wales. The bridge was designed by Thomas Telford and completed in 1826.

Before the bridge was completed in 1826, the island had no fixed connection to the mainland and all movements to and from Anglesey were by ferry across the fast flowing waters and dangerous waters of the Menai Strait. The main source of income on Anglesey was from the sale of cattle, and to move them to the markets of the mainland, including London, they had to be driven into the water and encouraged to swim across the Strait, a dangerous practice which often resulted in the loss of valuable animals. With Holyhead as the closest point to, and thus one of the principal ports for ferries to Dublin, Engineer, Thomas Telford was engaged to complete a survey of the route from London to Holyhead, and he proposed that a bridge should be built over the Menai Strait from a point near Bangor on the mainland to the village of Porthaethwy (which is now also known as Menai Bridge) on Anglesey.

Because of the high banks and fast flowing waters of the Strait, it would have been difficult to build piers on the shifting sands of the sea bed and, even if it could be done, they would have obstructed the navigation. Also, the bridge would have to be high enough to allow the passage of the tall ships of the day. In view of this, Telford proposed that a suspension bridge should be built and his recommendation was accepted by Parliament.

Construction of the bridge, to Telford's design, began in 1819 with the towers on either side of the strait. These were constructed from Penmon limestone and were hollow with internal cross-walls. Then came the sixteen huge chain cables, each made of 935 iron bars, that support the 176-metre (577 ft) span. To avoid rusting between manufacture and use, the iron was soaked in linseed oil and later painted. The chains each measured 522.3 metres (1,714 ft) and weighed 121 tons. Their suspending power was calculated at 2,016 tons. The bridge was opened to much fanfare on 30 January 1826.

The roadway was only 24 ft wide and, without stiffening trusses, soon proved highly unstable in the wind. The deck of the Menai Bridge was strengthened in 1840 by W. A. Provis and, in 1893, the entire wooden surface was replaced with a steel deck designed by Sir Benjamin Baker. Over the years, the 4.5 ton weight limit proved problematic for the increasing freight industry and in 1938 the original wrought iron chains were replaced with steel ones without the need to close the bridge. In 1999 the bridge was closed for around a month to resurface the road and strengthen the structure, requiring all traffic to cross via the nearby Britannia Bridge.

On 28 February 2005 the bridge was promoted to UNESCO as a candidate World Heritage Site. On the same day one carriageway of the bridge was closed for six months restricting traffic to a single carriageway so that traffic travelled to the mainland in the morning and to Anglesey in the afternoon. The bridge was re-opened to traffic in both directions on 11 December 2005 after its first major re-painting in 65 years.
 

McNeill's Egyptian Arch Bridge

 

     

Macneill's Egyptian Arch is a railway bridge in Newry, Northern Ireland. Construction was completed in 1851 for the Dublin and Belfast Junction Railway Company and was the result of collaboration between engineer Sir John Macneill and constructor William Dargan. Locally known as the Egyptian Arch, the rail bridge passes over the Newry–Camlough Road, in the County Armagh half of Newry.
It is located approximately 2 miles from the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland on the Dublin–Belfast railway line. It is located less than 1 mile along the line from the 18 Arches viaduct, also known as the Craigmore Viaduct.

The Egyptian Arch gained its name from its resemblance to the nemes headdress worn by Ancient Egyptian pharaohs. The bridge was selected for the design of the £1 coin to represent Northern Ireland for 2006. All four of the bridge design pound coins for each constituent part of the UK were designed by wood engraver Edwina Ellis in a Royal Mint design competition.

The bridge was also the location of the Egyptian Arch Ambush of 13 December 1920.

Gateshead Millennium Bridge

 

    

 

The Gateshead Millennium Bridge is a pedestrian and cyclist tilt bridge spanning the River Tyne in England between Gateshead's Quays arts quarter on the south bank, and the Quayside of Newcastle upon Tyne on the north bank. The award-winning structure was conceived and designed by architect Wilkinson Eyre and structural engineer Gifford. The bridge is sometimes referred to as the 'Blinking Eye Bridge' or the 'Winking Eye Bridge' due to its shape and its tilting method. In terms of height, the Gateshead Millennium Bridge is slightly shorter than the neighbouring Tyne Bridge, and stands as the sixteenth tallest structure in the city.

The bridge was lifted into place in one piece by the Asian Hercules II,[4] one of the world's largest floating cranes, on 20 November 2000. It was opened to the public on 17 September 2001, and was dedicated by Queen Elizabeth II on 7 May 2002. The bridge, which cost £22m to build, was part funded by the Millennium Commission and European Regional Development Fund. It was built by Volker Stevin.

Six 45 cm (18 in) diameter hydraulic rams (three on each side, each powered by a 55 kW electric motor) rotate the bridge back on large bearings to allow small ships and boats (up to 25 m (82 ft) tall) to pass underneath. The bridge takes as little as 4.5 minutes to rotate through the full 40° from closed to open, depending on wind speed. Its appearance during this manoeuvre has led to it being nicknamed the "Blinking Eye Bridge".

The bridge has operated reliably since construction, opening to allow river traffic to pass. It also opens periodically for sightseers and for major events such as the Northumbrian Water University Boat Race and the Cutty Sark Tall Ships' Race. One of the principal requirements for opening the bridge is to allow access to HMS Calliope where Royal Navy patrol boat HMS Example is based.

The construction of the bridge won the architects Wilkinson Eyre the 2002 Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) Stirling Prize.[8] and won Gifford the 2003 IStructE Supreme Award.[9] In 2005, the bridge received the Outstanding Structure Award from International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE).

Bollards, known as the Vessel Collision Protection System, were installed when the bridge was built to protect it from collisions. However, the bollards became unsightly, and it became noted that they weren't actually required. They were removed in March 2012.

Tilt times for the bridge are displayed both on the bridge itself, and also on a page on the Gateshead Council website.

Royal Coat of Arms

 

 

 

The Royal coat of arms is the official coat of arms of the British monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. These arms are used by the Queen in her official capacity as monarch of the United Kingdom. Variants of the Royal Arms are used by other members of the Royal Family; and by the British government in connection with the administration and government of the country. In Scotland, the Queen has a separate version of the Royal Arms, a variant of which is used by the Scotland Office.

The shield is quartered, depicting in the first and fourth quarters the three passant guardant lions of England; in the second, the rampant lion and double tressure flory-counterflory of Scotland; and in the third, a harp for Ireland. The crest is a statant guardant lion wearing the St Edward's Crown, himself on another representation of that crown. The dexter supporter is a likewise crowned English lion; the sinister, a Scottish unicorn. According to legend a free unicorn was considered a very dangerous beast; therefore the heraldic unicorn is chained, as were both supporting unicorns in the Royal coat of arms of Scotland. In the greenery below, a thistle, Tudor Rose and shamrock are present, representing Scotland, England and Ireland respectively. The coat features both the motto of English monarchs, Dieu et mon droit (God and my right), and the motto of the Order of the Garter, Honi soit qui mal y pense (shame upon him who thinks evil of it) on a representation of the Garter behind the shield.

 

Regional Capitals Series

 

    

The £1 coin series features traditional heraldic shields. Stuart Devlin has given the designs a contemporary flavour by making the shields round to reflect the shapes of the coins themselves. Speaking about designing the £1 coin range, he said: “I was really excited and privileged to design the new series, particularly as the £1 is such an important symbol in UK coinage. Representing the four capital cities, in a way that brings them together was a challenge, not least because capital cities are so politically sensitive and emotive. However, I worked on the principle that the key is to find something that people identify with.”

Each of Devlin’s coins bears the coats of arms of all four capital cities, with the heraldic emblem of one city particularly highlighted. Concentric shapes emanate from the central design to represent the infinite influence that one city has on the other four and the world as a whole. The obverse of the coins bears the portrait of Her Majesty The Queen by Ian Rank-Broadley FRBS.

The London coin bears the coat of arms of the Corporation of the city of London – the ‘Square Mile’ presided over by the Lord Mayor of London. This emblem features a red cross and upright red sword in the top left quarter, which combines the symbol of the City’s patron saint, St Paul, with that of England’s, the red cross of St George. The edge of the London coin is inscribed with the motto of the arms DOMINE DIRIGE NOS, which is translated as ‘Lord, direct us’.

 

Two Pounds

 1986 Commonwealth Games

   

The 1986 Commonwealth Games were held in Edinburgh, Scotland, between 24 July and 2 August 1986. They were the second Games to be held in Edinburgh.

Unlike the 1970 Games in Edinburgh, which were popular and successful, the 1986 Games are ill-famed for the wide political boycott connected with them and the resulting financial mismanagement.

The majority of Commonwealth nations staged a boycott, so that the Games appeared to be a whites-only event. Thirty two of the eligible fifty nine countries—largely African, Asian and Caribbean states—stayed away because of the Thatcher government's policy of keeping Britain's sporting links with apartheid South Africa in preference to participating in the general sporting boycott of that country. Consequently, Edinburgh 1986 witnessed the lowest number of athletes since Auckland 1950. Bermuda was a particularly late withdrawal, as its athletes appeared in the opening ceremony before the association decided to formally withdraw before competition began.

Further controversy arose when it was revealed that through this much-reduced participation and the resultant decline in anticipated broadcasting and sponsorship revenues, the Organising Committee was facing a big financial black hole. The boycott ended any prospect of securing emergency government assistance. Businessman Robert Maxwell stepped in to offer funding, taking over as chairman; but although he promised to invest £2m, his contribution was just £250,000. On a budget of £14m, the Games opened with a deficit of £3m, which later grew to £4.3m, and instead of putting enough money into the event to save it, the new chairman of the Games asked creditors to forgo half the payment due to them to keep the event out of liquidation. The debt was finally paid off in 1989, with the city of Edinburgh losing approximately £500,000.

Several participants were excluded because they breached the amateurism rules, most notably lawn bowlers Phil Skoglund from New Zealand and Willie Wood from Scotland, both of whom have competed in subsequent games.

300th Anniversary of Claim of Rights

 

 


The Bill of Rights is an Act of the Parliament of England passed on 16 December 1689 in the wake of the Glorious Revolution. It was a restatement in statutory form of the Declaration of Right presented by the Convention Parliament to William and Mary in March 1689 (or 1688 by Old Style dating), inviting them to become joint sovereigns of England. It lays down limits on the powers of the Crown and sets out the rights of Parliament and rules for freedom of speech in Parliament, the requirement for regular elections to Parliament and the right to petition the Monarch without fear of retribution. It reestablished the liberty of Protestants to have arms for their defence within the rule of law, and condemned James II of England for "causing several good subjects being Protestants to be disarmed at the same time when papists were both armed and employed contrary to laws".

These ideas about rights reflected those of the political thinker John Locke and they quickly became popular in England. It also sets out—or, in the view of its drafters, restates—certain constitutional requirements of the Crown to seek the consent of the people, as represented in Parliament.

In the United Kingdom, the Bill of Rights is further accompanied by Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 and the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 as some of the basic documents of the uncodified British constitution. A separate but similar document, the Claim of Right Act 1689, applies in Scotland. The Bill of Rights 1689 was one of the inspirations for the United States Bill of Rights.

Along with the Act of Settlement 1701, the Bill of Rights is still in effect in all Commonwealth realms.

50th Anniversary of End of world war II 

    

 

50th Anniversary of United Nations

 

     

During the closing days of the Second World War, representatives of 51 nations attended the UN Conference on International Organization in San Francisco and signed the UN Charter. This event brought the Organization into existence on 24 October 1945, the day now known as United Nations Day. In 1995 the United Nations celebrated its 50th Anniversary of service to the global community.

The 50th Anniversary was an historic opportunity to encourage international debate about the role of the UN, as well as to celebrate its accomplishments. Coinciding with a turning point in international relations, it was a time to rekindle the ideals of the UN Charter and to spread the spirit of cooperation among the peoples of the world. An overall theme of the celebration, "We The Peoples of the United Nations...United for a Better World," was endorsed by the General Assembly in October 1993. The UN 50th Anniversary celebrations culminated in New York on 24 October 1995 with a commemorative session of the General Assembly. During the formal proceedings of the Assembly, the 50th Anniversary Declaration of the UN was endorsed by the Membership. The Declaration promotes themes of peace, development, equality and justice.

The Anniversary celebration was a global undertaking involving a UN50 Secretariat established by the Secretary-General and 152 National Committees formed by the Member States. In addition, National Committees around the world spearheaded programs such as academic conferences, debates, documentaries, Model UNs, art exhibits, concerts and other popular events. United Nations Associations (UNAs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) also broadened public understanding of UN achievements through educational programs, conferences and numerous activities throughout 1995.

Many of the UN50 programs were geared toward educating young people -- those who will determine the future role of the United Nations. A centerpiece of UN50 educational activities was the Global Teach-In, a call to educators to focus on the UN and global concerns during October 1995. Over 70 countries participated in Global Teach-In activities, ranging from UN quizzes in schools and teacher training workshops to the distribution of School Kits on the United Nations. It is anticipated that the Teach-Ins will continue to be held each year to commemorate UN Day.

UN50 also sought to highlight the scope of work and achievements of the UN in areas such as development, human rights, environmental protection and humanitarian aid that have traditionally received less visibility than peacekeeping and conflict resolution.

A special UN50 emblem was created for use with official Anniversary activities of the Secretariat and Member States. In addition, UN50 commemorative coin and stamp programs were established globally to promote the 50th Anniversary celebration. Approximately 200 postal administration issued stamps commemorating the Anniversary.

In November 1995 the UN flag was carried into outer space by the astronauts of the Space Shuttle Atlantis, to salute United Nations work for the peaceful uses of outer space.

UEFA Europeon Football Championships

 


The 1996 UEFA European Football Championship, commonly referred to as Euro 96, was the 10th UEFA European Football Championship, a quadrennial football tournament contested by European nations. It took place in England from 8 to 30 June 1996.

It was the first European Championship to feature 16 finalists, following UEFA's decision to expand the tournament from eight teams. Games were staged in eight cities and, although not all games were sold out, the tournament holds the European Championship's second-highest aggregate attendance (1,276,000) and average per game (41,158) for the 16-team format,[1] surpassed only in 2012.

Germany won the tournament, beating the Czech Republic 2–1 in the final with a golden goal during extra time; this was the first major competition to be decided using this method. This was Germany's first major title won as a unified nation.

Rugby World Cup

   

The 1999 Rugby World Cup was the fourth Rugby World Cup and was won by Australia. This was the first Rugby World Cup to be held in rugby union's professional era. The principal host nation was Wales, although the majority of matches were played outside the country, shared between England, France, Scotland and Ireland. As the opening ceremony, first match and the Final would take place in Cardiff, Wales, the Welsh team were awarded the automatic qualification berth afforded the hosts. Only four automatic qualification places were available for the 1999 tournament; the other three went to the top three teams from the previous World Cup in 1995; champions (South Africa), runners-up (New Zealand), and third-place play-off winners (France).

The tournament was expanded to 20 teams (from 16), divided into five groups of four teams, a scenario that necessitated a quarter-final play-off round involving the five runners-up and best third-placed team to decide who would join the pool winners in the last eight. Qualification for the final 16 places took place between 63 other nations. The 1999 tournament saw the introduction of a repechage, effectively a second chance for teams that had finished runners-up in each qualifying zone. Uruguay and Tonga were the first nations to profit from the repechage, and took their places alongside fellow qualifiers Australia, England, Ireland, Scotland, Italy, Argentina, Fiji, Samoa, Romania, Canada, Namibia, Japan, Spain and the United States.

The tournament began with the opening ceremony in the newly built Millennium Stadium in Cardiff, with Wales beating Argentina 23–18, and Colin Charvis scoring the first try of the tournament. Australia won the tournament, becoming the first nation to do so twice and also to date the only team ever to win after having to qualify for the tournament, with a 35–12 triumph over France, who were unable to repeat their semi-final victory over pre-tournament favourites New Zealand.

The overall attendance for the tournament was 1.75 million.

50th Anniversary of the Disvoery of DNA

 

    


A representation of the double helical structure of DNA with the words DNA Double Helix above and 'TWO POUNDS' and the dates '1953-2003' below designed by John Mills

DNA, short for deoxyribonucleic acid, is the molecule that contains the genetic code of organisms. This includes animals, plants, protists, archaea and bacteria.

DNA is in each cell in the organism and tells cells what proteins to make. Mostly, these proteins are enzymes. DNA is inherited by children from their parents. This is why children share traits with their parents, such as skin, hair and eye color. The DNA in a person is a combination of the DNA from each of their parents.

Part of an organism's DNA is "non-coding DNA" sequences. They do not code for protein sequences. Some noncoding DNA is transcribed into non-coding RNA molecules, such as transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA, and regulatory RNAs). Other sequences are not transcribed at all, or give rise to RNA of unknown function. The amount of non-coding DNA varies greatly among species. For example, over 98% of the human genome is non-coding DNA, while only about 2% of a typical bacterial genome is non-coding DNA.

Viruses use either DNA or RNA to infect organisms. The genome replication of most DNA viruses takes place in the cell's nucleus, whereas RNA viruses usually replicate in the cytoplasm.

DNA was first isolated (extracted from cells) by Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher in 1869, when he was working on bacteria from the pus in surgical bandages. The molecule was found in the nucleus of the cells and so he called it nuclein.

 

In 1928, Frederick Griffith discovered that traits of the "smooth" form of Pneumococcus could be transferred to the "rough" form of the same bacteria by mixing killed "smooth" bacteria with the live "rough" form. This system provided the first clear suggestion that DNA carries genetic information.

The Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment identified DNA as the transforming principle in 1943.

DNA's role in heredity was confirmed in 1952, when Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase in the Hershey–Chase experiment showed that DNA is the genetic material of the T2 bacteriophage.

In the 1950s, Erwin Chargaff  found that the amount of thymine (T) present in a molecule of DNA was about equal to the amount of adenine (A) present. He found that the same applies to guanine (G) and cytosine (C). Chargaff's rules summarises this finding.

In 1953, James D. Watson and Francis Crick suggested what is now accepted as the first correct double-helix model of DNA structure in the journal Nature. Their double-helix, molecular model of DNA was then based on a single X-ray diffraction image "Photo 51", taken by Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling in May 1952.

Experimental evidence supporting the Watson and Crick model was published in a series of five articles in the same issue of Nature. Of these, Franklin and Gosling's paper was the first publication of their own X-ray diffraction data and original analysis method that partly supported the Watson and Crick model;[13] this issue also contained an article on DNA structure by Maurice Wilkins and two of his colleagues, whose analysis and in vivo B-DNA X-ray patterns also supported the presence in vivo of the double-helical DNA configurations as proposed by Crick and Watson for their double-helix molecular model of DNA in the previous two pages of Nature. In 1962, after Franklin's death, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Nobel Prizes were awarded only to living recipients at the time. A debate continues about who should receive credit for the discovery.

 

In 1957, Crick explained the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins, in the central dogma of molecular biology.

How DNA was copied (the replication mechanism) came in 1958 through the Meselson–Stahl experiment. More work by Crick and coworkers showed that the genetic code was based on non-overlapping triplets of bases, called codons. These findings represent the birth of molecular biology.

How Watson and Crick got Franklin's results has been much debated. Crick, Watson and Maurice Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1962 for their work on DNA – Rosalind Franklin had died in 1958.

 

200th Birthday of Engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel

  


Isambard Kingdom Brunel, FRS (/ˈɪzəmbɑrd bruːˈnɛl/; 9 April 1806 – 15 September 1859), was an English mechanical and civil engineer who built dockyards, the Great Western Railway, a series of steamships including the first propeller-driven transatlantic steamship and numerous important bridges and tunnels. His designs revolutionised public transport and modern engineering.

Though Brunel's projects were not always successful, they often contained innovative solutions to long-standing engineering problems. During his short career, Brunel achieved many engineering "firsts", including assisting in the building of the first tunnel under a navigable river and development of SS Great Britain, the first propeller-driven ocean-going iron ship, which was at the time (1843) also the largest ship ever built.

Brunel set the standard for a well-built railway, using careful surveys to minimise grades and curves. This necessitated expensive construction techniques and new bridges and viaducts, and the two-mile-long Box Tunnel. One controversial feature was the wide gauge, a "broad gauge" of 7 ft 1⁄4 in (2,140 mm), instead of what was later to be known as 'standard gauge' of 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in (1,435 mm). The wider gauge added to passenger comfort but made construction much more expensive and caused difficulties when eventually it had to interconnect with other railways using the narrower gauge. As a result of the Regulating the Gauge of Railways Act 1846, the gauge was changed to standard gauge throughout the GWR network.

Brunel astonished Britain by proposing to extend the Great Western Railway westward to North America by building steam-powered iron-hulled ships. He designed and built three ships that revolutionised naval engineering.

In 2002, Brunel was placed second in a BBC public poll to determine the "100 Greatest Britons". In 2006, the bicentenary of his birth, a major programme of events celebrated his life and work under the name Brunel 200.

200th Anniversary of the Abolition of Slave trade

     

Oloudah Equiano emerged from an early life of slavery in the tropics and North America to become a leading figure in the London-based movement to abolish the slave trade.

In 1789 Equiano, now in London, published a memoir of his life detailing the horrors he witnessed as a slave. ‘The Interesting Narrative’, became a bestseller, helping turn the tide of public opinion behind abolishing the slave trade in Britain in 1833. Equiano’s harrowing record of the conditions on a slave ship as it crossed the Atlantic was often quoted by William Wilberforce in parliamentary debates. Passages such as the following helped convince other members of the case for abolition: ‘The stench of the hold when we were on the coast was so intolerably loathsome … now that the whole ship’s cargo were confined together, it became absolutely pestilential… the air soon became unfit for respiration, from a variety of loathsome smells, and brought on a sickness among the slaves, of which many died. The shrieks of the women, the groans of the dying, rendered the whole scene of horror almost inconceivable.’

Equiano was born in 1745. His epic forced peregrinations began in what is now Nigeria. At 11 years old he was kidnapped with his sister and marched to the West African coast, where he was sold to slave traders and shipped to Virginia via Barbados. After years slaving on plantations, Equiano was bought by a British naval officer, Captain Henry Pascal, and worked as his personal servant on board ship and as his gunpowder carrier in battle in the Seven Year War for control of North America and the Caribbean, fought by Great Britain and France.

Pascal later brought Equiano as a gift to his female cousins in London, where he was sent to school to learn to read and write in between periods at sea. This belated introduction to literacy was enough for Equiano’s talents to bloom as the author of an epoch-making memoir still published by Penguin Classics as ‘an exciting, sometimes terrifying adventure story and spiritual quest, also a sophisticated treatise on religion, politics, and economics… of enduring literary and historical value’.

In the late 1750s, after some years in London, Pascal sold Equiano to a Captain James Doran, who took him to the island of Montserrat and sold him to a Quaker merchant. He was put to work as a supervisor on plantations where the terrible tortures he saw inflicted on his fellow slaves drove him to achieve his freedom. Equiano saved whatever money he could, and in 1766 purchased his freedom for £40 – more than a year’s pay then – before returning to London in 1767.

He found work as a hairdresser and soon emerged as a leader of London’s free-slave population, campaigning for years to abolish the trade that had enslaved him. Equiano reported to early abolitionist Granville Sharp the Zong massacre of 1781 in which 133 sick slaves had been thrown alive from the Zong, a slave ship, so the captains could claim insurance on loss of cargo. News of the incident caused a public uproar against slavery that set off the abolition movement.

Equiano petitioned the Queen in 1788 as a member of the London Corresponding Society and campaigned through the 1790s. On April 7 1792 he married an Englishwoman, Susanna Cullen. They had two daughters, one of whom survived to inherit a substantial estate of £950 (equivalent to about £100,000 today), from her father, who had managed to turn his book into a financial success. Equiano died in March 1797, a full ten years before the slave trade was abolished on British ships, 40 years before slavery was abolished in British colonies, and 68 years before slavery was ended in the United States.

Five Pounds

 

90th Birthday of Queen Mother

 

    

Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon (4 August 1900 – 30 March 2002) was the wife of King George VI and the mother of Queen Elizabeth II and Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon. She was queen consort of the United Kingdom from her husband's accession in 1936 until his death in 1952, after which she was known as Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, to avoid confusion with her daughter. She was the last Empress of India.

Born into a family of British nobility as The Honourable Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, she became Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon when her father inherited the Scottish Earldom of Strathmore and Kinghorne in 1904. She came to prominence in 1923 when she married Albert, Duke of York, the second son of King George V and Queen Mary. The couple and their daughters embodied traditional ideas of family and public service. She undertook a variety of public engagements and became known as the "Smiling Duchess" because of her consistent public expression.

In 1936, her husband unexpectedly became King when his brother, Edward VIII, abdicated in order to marry the American divorcée Wallis Simpson. As Queen, Elizabeth accompanied her husband on diplomatic tours to France and North America before the start of World War II. During the war, her seemingly indomitable spirit provided moral support to the British public. In recognition of her role as an asset to British interests, Adolf Hitler described her as "the most dangerous woman in Europe". After the war, her husband's health deteriorated and she was widowed at the age of 51.

On the death of her mother-in-law, Queen Mary, in 1953 and with the former King Edward VIII living abroad and her elder daughter, the new Queen, aged 27, Elizabeth became the senior member of the British Royal Family and assumed a position as family matriarch. In her later years, she was a consistently popular member of the family, even when other members were suffering from low levels of public approval. She continued an active public life until just a few months before her death at the age of 101, seven weeks after the death of her younger daughter, Princess Margaret.

Princess Diana

   

Diana, Princess of Wales (Diana Frances née Spencer; 1 July 1961 – 31 August 1997), was the first wife of Charles, Prince of Wales, who is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II.

Diana was born into an aristocratic British family with royal ancestry as The Honourable Diana Frances Spencer. She was the fourth child of John Spencer, Viscount Althorp and the Honourable Frances Ruth Roche, the daughter of British aristocrat the 4th Baron Fermoy. After her parents' divorce, she was raised in Park House, which was situated near to the Sandringham estate, and was educated in England and Switzerland. Diana became Lady Diana Spencer after her father later inherited the title of Earl Spencer in 1975. She became a public figure with the announcement of her engagement.

Her wedding to the Prince of Wales on 29 July 1981 was held at St Paul's Cathedral and seen by a global television audience of over 750 million. While married, Diana bore the titles Princess of Wales, Duchess of Cornwall, Duchess of Rothesay, Countess of Chester and Baroness of Renfrew. The marriage produced two sons, the princes William and Harry, who were respectively second and third in the line of succession to the British throne for the remainder of her lifetime. After her marriage, she undertook a variety of public engagements. As the Princess of Wales, Diana assisted the Prince of Wales on his official duties. She was also the patron, president and a member of numerous charities and organisations. She was well known for her fund-raising work for international charities and as an eminent celebrity of the late 20th century. She also received recognition for her charity work and for her support of the International Campaign to Ban Landmines. From 1989, she was the president of Great Ormond Street Hospital for children, in addition to dozens of other charities.

Diana remained the object of worldwide media scrutiny during and after her marriage, which ended in divorce on 28 August 1996. If the Prince of Wales had ascended the throne during their marriage, Diana would have become queen consort. Media attention and public mourning were very extensive after her death in a car crash in Paris on 31 August 1997.

50th Anniversary of the wedding of Elizabeth and Philip

 

     


The British five pound (£5) coin is a commemorative denomination of the pound sterling. Its obverse has featured the profile of Queen Elizabeth II since the coin’s introduction in 1990. Two different portraits of the Queen have graced the coin, with the latest design by Ian Rank-Broadley being introduced in 1998. The coin has no standard reverse, which is altered each year to commemorate important events. Variant obverses have also been used on occasion.

The wedding of Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh took place on 20 November 1947 at Westminster Abbey in London.

Anno Domini

   

Anno Domini (AD or A.D.) and Before Christ (BC or B.C.) are designations used to label or number years used with the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The term Anno Domini is Medieval Latin, translated as In the year of the Lord, and as in the Year of Our Lord.:782 It is sometimes specified more fully as Anno Domini Nostri Iesu (Jesu) Christi ("In the Year of Our Lord Jesus Christ"). This calendar era is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus of Nazareth, with AD counting years from the start of this epoch, and BC denoting years before the start of the era. There is no year zero in this scheme, so the year AD 1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. This dating system was devised in 525, but was not widely used until after 800.

The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used calendar in the world today. For decades, it has been the unofficial global standard, adopted for the pragmatic interests of international communication, transportation, and commercial integration, and recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations and the Universal Postal Union.

Traditionally, English followed Latin usage by placing the "AD" abbreviation before the year number. Since BC is not derived from Latin it is placed after the year number (for example: AD 2015, but 68 BC). The abbreviation is also widely used after the number of a century or millennium, as in "fourth century AD" or "second millennium AD" (although conservative usage formerly rejected such expressions). Because BC is the English abbreviation for Before Christ, it is sometimes incorrectly concluded that AD means After Death, i.e., after the death of Jesus. However this would mean that the ~33 years commonly associated with the life of Jesus would not be present in either BC or AD time scales.

There is consensus among modern scholars that the historical year of the birth of Jesus was approximately 6–4 years Before Christ.

Terminology that is viewed by some as being more neutral and inclusive of non-Christian people is to call this the Christian, Current, or Common Era (abbreviated as CE or C.E.), with the preceding years referred to as Before the Common, Christian, or Current Era (BCE or B.C.E.). Astronomical year numbering and ISO 8601 avoid words or abbreviations related to Christianity, but use the same numbers for years AD.

Queen Mother

    


    

Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon (4 August 1900 – 30 March 2002) was the wife of King George VI and the mother of Queen Elizabeth II and Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon. She was queen consort of the United Kingdom from her husband's accession in 1936 until his death in 1952, after which she was known as Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, to avoid confusion with her daughter. She was the last Empress of India.

Born into a family of British nobility as The Honourable Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, she became Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon when her father inherited the Scottish Earldom of Strathmore and Kinghorne in 1904. She came to prominence in 1923 when she married Albert, Duke of York, the second son of King George V and Queen Mary. The couple and their daughters embodied traditional ideas of family and public service. She undertook a variety of public engagements and became known as the "Smiling Duchess" because of her consistent public expression.

In 1936, her husband unexpectedly became King when his brother, Edward VIII, abdicated in order to marry the American divorcée Wallis Simpson. As Queen, Elizabeth accompanied her husband on diplomatic tours to France and North America before the start of World War II. During the war, her seemingly indomitable spirit provided moral support to the British public. In recognition of her role as an asset to British interests, Adolf Hitler described her as "the most dangerous woman in Europe". After the war, her husband's health deteriorated and she was widowed at the age of 51.

On the death of her mother-in-law, Queen Mary, in 1953 and with the former King Edward VIII living abroad and her elder daughter, the new Queen, aged 27, Elizabeth became the senior member of the British Royal Family and assumed a position as family matriarch. In her later years, she was a consistently popular member of the family, even when other members were suffering from low levels of public approval. She continued an active public life until just a few months before her death at the age of 101, seven weeks after the death of her younger daughter, Princess Margaret.